THE FUNCTION OF ΑNCIENT GREEK IN MODERN GREEK – POLISH LEGAL TRANSLATION TEACHING

According to ideas which have been presented in main course books and methodological guides, a lack of Ancient Greek in the process of teaching Modern Greek Philology has occurred. It could be a problem if Modern Greek philologists decide to be translators and interpreters of legal texts because the Greek language of law has archaisms, rigid structures and elements. My project deals with the function and amount of Ancient Greek in the curiculum of Modern Greek Philology. I conclude that it is impossible to avoid Ancient Greek in the curriculum of Modern Greek Philology completely. I show the necessity of the Ancient Greek language because present Greek grammar and dictionaries cannot off er any insight in this fi eld. Analysis of the curriculum aff ects the Modern Greek Language and Literature Department at Adam Mickiewicz University. Th e research material concludes with selected parts of Greek and Cypriot statutory acts which also aff ect the aforementiones

level (level A and B according to CEFR 2 and description of levels in the Center of Modern Greek Language -main institution which provides Certifi cates in Modern Greek language 3 ).
Th e research is new and interesting because currently I have students who do their courses simultaneously in two diff erent systems: 1) the "old system": second, third, and fourth year of M.A. in Modern Greek Language and Literature in unitary M.A. 5-years studies, 2) the "new system" according to the Bologna Process which is the fi rst year of B.A. Modern Greek Language and Literature in one's 3-year studies.Th ese two systems are being conducted simultaneously because the Institute of Linguistics at Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań introduced the principles of the Bologna Process three years aft er introducing the Modern Greek Language and Literature studies.
Th ese two programs diff er in terms of time and quantity of the Ancient Greek Course (old system: 1 st -2 nd year, 180 hours together; new system 2 nd year -90 hours), and the Modern Greek Language Course and Descriptive Grammar of Modern Greek Language4 in the fi rst three years of these studies which are essential for future graduates.Th e following three subjects are essential for absolute beginners who begin learning a foreign language.Having classes with both groups of students, I noticed that the function of Ancient Greek in preparing future philologists, especially translators and interpreters is essential in comparing the "old system" and "new system".Th e main diff erences between students of the "old system" and "new system" were clearly seen in the second and third year of studies in which more advanced grammatical and lexical topics were discussed and compared among groups of students.

Contradictions in Modern Greek Language and Literature Studies and their contribution to the curriculum
In most cases people who study or learn foreign languages plan to work as interpreters or translators of that language.Th e same happens with students of Modern Greek Philological studies.Academic staff must prepare curriculum which fulfi lls expectations and provides the best background for future interpreters and translators.Th e fi rst main problem which is connected with the Modern Greek Language is the range of academic courses off ered.Th e course "Modern Greek Language" according to some scholar monographs should concern philological subjects which have immediate connection with Modern Greek.From a linguistic point of view it is quite easy to determine a range of studied material -the period from ca. 1600 a.d. 5 or even 4 th century 6 , but from the historical and political point of view, the issue is more complicated because the formal Greece has existed since 1832.Legal translators and interpreters of Modern Greek Language must know not only this fact but also must know various types of Greek Language used before Greece was founded.Th ere were some historical legal texts such as last wills or agreements between Turkish authorities written in the contemporary Greek language7 which could have been sample for Greek lawyers.Th ese texts are very oft en used as examples not only of legal language but historical language too because they include both legal information and historical-linguistics information which could have been in use at the beginning of the Greek State.Written in mixed language (ancient-popular-modern) sources need simoultaneously knowledge of the Ancient Greek Language and the Common Modern Greek Language to be undestood well.
Diglossy in Greek language makes up next main obstacle which may occur in legal translation.It is caused by diversity of the language types used in Greek state aft er 1832.Diglossy in Greek language lies in two diff erent language systems used at the same time.Th e offi cial language of Greece was called "katharevousa", which written in the Constitution of Greece8 untill 1976 when another Constitution was written in the Modern Greek Language.Th e last constitution started to be a sample for following statutory and legal texts.It is important to note that "katharevousa" was an artifi cial language based on the Ancient Greek Language and taught in schools as a foreign language to the Greeks because another language was used in every-day life, called "dimotiki".Even today legal translators and interpreters come across texts written and published in "katharevousa" which cannot be understood without suffi cient knowledge of Ancient Greek.
Th e polytonic system is another issue connected with the Modern Greek languge.Since 1982, the Modern Greek language has had only a monotonic system 9 and all published texts had to be written and prepared in polytonic system when writing was the same like in the Ancient Greek Polytonic System.Diff erent accents did not infl uence phonetic system but made orthography even more diffi cult.Currently Greek legal texts are published and written in the monotonic system but there are some older (before 1982) original statutory and legal texts saved still in the polytonic system.Also there is still a possibility to keep the polytonic system in some publications.Th e issue how to treat the polytonic transcript in relation with the monotonic system can be explained more eff ectively with the Ancient Greek Language as it was its integral element.

Contribution of the Ancient Greek Course to teaching language, translationing and interpreting
Th e most important part of the curriculum of philological studies is learning a specialized language.In my case, this language is NEK -Νεοελληνική Κοινή Γλώσσα (Common Modern Greek Language) which is the offi cial language spoken in: the Republic of Greece and the Republic of Cyprus.
Obviously learning Modern Greek is a time-consuming process like learning any foreign language.Th e methodology of teaching Greek extends over few years at least10 .Th e fi rst step is to understand the diff erences between Greek and other alphabets and to learn how to read and write in Greek.Although this step is long it is necessary as the Greek alphabet is in force in Greece and in Cyprus.Th e second step is to understand Greek orthography which is quite complicated, for instance, there are six possibilities in how to write the sound [i].Th en, students learn Greek grammar and vocabulary.Aft er about four years of studies, which consist of about 1200 hours of Greek exercises, students reach the advanced, fourth level which is called the Delta Level11 .At this point they are able to develop their knowledge of Greek and to work with professional and specialized texts.
According to my observations, students who start the Ancient Greek course have less problems with writing in the Greek alphabet and with orthography in the beginning, but sometimes they have problems with pronunciation because they hear and use Erasmus' way of pronouncing in Ancient Greek so they may not recognize Modern Greek diphthongs very quickly when talking or reading aloud.Th is situation took place during the fi rst two years of studies when I compared students of these two systems.Here I present the most relevant reasons which affi rm the existence of the Ancient Greek course in the curriculum of Modern Greek Language and Literature studies: 1.In addition to the course of Modern Greek, which is approximately 300 hours a year, students learn the Greek alphabet to a greater extent in the course of Ancient Greek language which is 120-180 hours at 1 st -2 nd year of studies.
2. Th ere is a diff erent pronunciation of Ancient Greek (compared to Modern Greek) which is taught using Erasmus' methodology (lack of Modern Greek diphthongs).Th is means that students read consequently what is written without changing articulation in diff erent phonetic situations -apart of diphthong ου -they may preserve complicated Greek orthography.For instance endings of conjugated verbs of 1 st conjugation in indicative of the present tense, -εις (2 sg.), -ει (3 sg.) are read "eis", "ei" which is like spelling.
As seen above Ancient Greek might be useful in the beginning of learning Modern Greek, but the most important issue of my presentation is the role and value of Ancient Greek for future translators and interpreters.Especially if they are sworn translators and work with legal texts, the Ancient Greek is very needed.(see following examples).
Before analyzing the main issue, which is legal Modern Greek Language, I will examine the issue of NEK12 [Νεοελληνική Κοινή (Γλώσσα)] -Common Modern Greek Language.To avoid vague defi nitions and explanations I would like to suggest a short description of the presented here term NEK based on widely recognized authorities on Common Modern Greek Language.
One of the Modern Greek scholars, Liakos, states that the Common Greek Language makes up the "dimotiki" language fi ltered through "katharevousa" language13 what means that popular natural language was modifi ed with "katharevousa's" elements based on Ancient Greek language.
British scholars, Holton, Mackridge and Φιλιππάκη-Warburton, write that the NEK is a language based on the spoken popular language "dimotiki" and simultaneously incorporates elements of the written traditional language "katharevousa"14 .
Th e mentioned above statements contain the same information which is dual character of Common Modern Greek Language and its content of Ancient Greek and Modern Greek structures and elements.Th is statement is essential when, discussing about legal Modern Greek language which is even much more formal and closer to archaic principals and sources 16 .In these circumstances I am sure that knowledge of Ancient Greek Language is necessary in the process of teaching legal translating and interpreting of the Modern Greek Language.

Use of Ancient Greek elements in legal Modern Greek
language in Greece and in Cyprus (research samples) I will describe linguistic problems that translators and interpreters may come across in their work which cannot be solved with knowledge acquired during the course of Modern Greek only, with the methodology presented through standard materials for foreign Greek speakers17 .I will then explain their connection with Ancient Greek.In conclusion, I want to clarify the problems which cannot be solved with the help of standard bibliography (listed in "Suggested and used bibliography at the Course of Modern Greek Language" at the end of the paper) used in the process of teaching and learning Greek.To address the problem, I will analyze the Constitutions of two Greek-speaking countries.Th ey are both written in the Modern Greek language but in a fact they are written in two diff erent language systems.Next, I will examine the language of statutory texts which are in force in Cyprus and are prepared in the traditional language which seems to be the "katahrevousa" without the polytonic system.Th e base for issues are parts of Greek and Cypriot statutory texts which exactly are Constitutions of these countries 18 .Th e most important aspects of legal Greek language are divided into three main groups, which are connected with semantics and grammar.My method is to show each specifi c problem and then to explain the type of problem which stems from the Ancient Greek language.Th e examples above -which are just samples of my research -show and underline the fact that NEK (Common Modern Greek Language) seems very archaic, especially when it is used in law.Th e language of statutory texts is made up with ancient grammar principles in the fi eld of morphology and syntax.Presented parts of texts show that legal Modern Greek language still uses elements and structures which come from Ancient Greek and existed in NEK in offi cial unitary phrases.

Syntax
Th e archaic vocabulary still exists in lexicological areas of legal language of NEK.Th e rigid structures and still-alive words have survived for few thousand years.Probably they will be still present in legal Modern Greek Language in both countries (Greece and Cyprus) where NEK is offi cial or one of the offi cial languages (in Cyprus there are two offi cial languages: Greek and Turkish).
Cypriot-Greek legal language is infl uenced by Ancient Greek even currently.Very complicated and very rapid historical circumstances23 caused not well stabilized situation in law and consequently in the sources of law (statutory texts).According to my opinion this situation infl uenced the Cypriot legal language.To illustrate my opinion I will present below a signifi cant example of still alive ancient Greek language in the Cypriot legal language.Cypriot texts includes few Ancient Greek elements: Gerundium -it is exactly ifi nitivus aoristii passivi συνέρχεσθαι which has not been used for a very long time in NEK and it is unknown completely for students who have not even basic knowledge of Ancient Greek grammar.Adverbium ειρηνικώς which comes from diff erent adjective than tone used in Greek text (ήσυχα), both have meaning: peaceful, calm.Th e morphology present in Cypriot texts exist only in very rare, stylized traditional and old version of NEK full of "katharevousa" elements and it is rarely present even in legal Modern Greek language.

Conclusion
Legal translation is obviously working for legal and statutory texts, written and spoken.Proper and accurate expression of translated texts is essential for this professional activity.Th e indisputable fact is the presence and infl uence of Ancient Greek and the "katharevousa" language in legal Modern Greek language in Greek-spoken countries."Katharevousa" and the Ancient Greek used in statutory acts and legal texts may have diff erent features which are as follows: 1. Th e presence of the polytonic system in older publication which can be treated as a "technical" issue.
2. Th e presence of the "katharevousa" language (elements of morphology and syntax) in statutory texts being still in force published earlier or not aft er "metaglossy"24 (not translated into NEK yet).
3. Th e presence of Ancient Greek vocabulary which has Modern Greek equivalents.
Th ese issues are diffi cult to recognize without suffi cient knowledge of Ancient Greek language.Some experts may feel it is unnecessary to conduct the whole Ancient Greek course in the framework of the Modern Greek Language and Literature curriculum, and it would be adequate to prepare a kind of handbook or dictionary with the most fi xed oft en linguistics situations connected with the Ancient Greek language.Although this kind of handbook/dictionary would not solve all the problems previously declared.Simultaneously, I must clear up that there is not any possibility to prepare this kind of assistance avoiding even basic elements of the Ancient Greek language.Th e legal translator and especially interpreter of Modern Greek must know the Ancient Greek system to be able to translate Greek texts into a second language and vice versa.
I mentioned above the so-called Ancient Greek course because various opinions exist among scholars25 connected with the question: "Which Ancient Greek is the most useful for future translators?"Currently among Modern Greek Philologists, there are some options which can be discussed: 1. Th e Ancient Attic dialect which could be based on the text of the period IV-II BC, for instance the text of Pausanias, Th ucydides.Th is dialect infl uenced the Greek language the most because later it became the base for "koine": of epoch of Alexander the Great.2. "Koine" of the epoch of Alexander the Great which later became the language of another "koine" in the fi rst ages B.C. (Roman Empire).Th is language was offi cial language of the Hellenistic administration and it is not as complicated as the classical Attic dialect.
3. "Koine" based on the Holy Bible, specially on the New Testament which was written in contemporary lingua franca -Greek language of that epoch: fi rst ages A.D.
4. "Koine" of Byzantine times which was based on the "pure" classical Attic dialect and on the previously mentioned "koine" above.
According to my opinion, authentic texts from the historical periods mentioned above could be samples used to show linguistics rules like the system of verbs with its whole range of verbal themes used in some verbal types of NEK (for instance: less commonly used participles).Th e whole course can be based on two main themes: 1) comprehensive grammar, 2) some authentic texts from various periods to practice grammar and to teach vocabulary (another virtue of Ancient Greek is its universal vocabulary which is presented in several foreign languages).Th e legal Modern Greek language in comparison with other specialized professional languages seems to be the most traditional.Th is character infl uence the programme of Ancient Greek course and could become a criterion in the selection of authentic textsmaterial for linguistic excercises.
Th ere are also opinions that "katharevousa" could be taught too26 .I must say it would be quite risky to replace Ancient Greek with only the "katharevousa" language because this type of the Greek language was originally an artifi cial language.Moreover, no grammar rules or principles were ever written or published.I believe "katharevousa" may be an additional course but not obligatory.
Discussion about the proper type of Ancient Greek language that is most useful for future translators and interpreters is very wide and popular.Undoubtedly, there is a common belief among Modern Greek Philologists and scholars that the Ancient Greek language is necessary in the curriculum of Modern Greek Language and Literature studies.Th e role of the Ancient Greek course is vital for legal translators and interpreters just as the role of Latin in the education of lawyers.
In my paper, I wanted to analyze legal Modern Greek language which is used in two European Union Member States.I realize that Greek is a lessspoken language, even in Europe, but it is still an offi cial language of the EU.Th at is the reason why teaching translators and interpreters of Modern Greek language is necessary.Organization of the curriculum must provide them accurate preparation to work and one element is the Ancient Greek course.
To summarize, I would underline that there is a lack of materials which could be used in teaching legal translators and interpretors.Some general publications about translation and interpretation may be used here, but unfortunately there are not exact monographs about the methodology of education of Modern Greek translation and interpretation.It is clearly seen in the Member States of the EU aft er 2004, that there is a necessity for Modern Greek translation and interpretation.In these circumstances both analysis legal texts and analysis of language of law (used in statutory texts) are necessary, because translators and interpreters need the knowledge about the legal text from lawyers and lawyers need the knowledge about the language from a translator on interpreter.Th is way only statutory acts and legal texts may be translated and interpreted correctly.
In these circumstances I do hope that some proposals to the curriculum of Modern Greek Language and Literature studies I presented above will be useful for both academic teachers and future legal translators and interpreters.

Table 2 .
Use of Ancient Greek language in legal Greek language -samples of lexis Noun λειτουργία which is present in the Greek Constitution used to have legal meaning in Ancient Greek, especially in the Classical Period in Athens.In NEK, this noun is replaced by another noun εξουσία which is given in the Cypriot Constitution.Preposition για exists in NEK and it is one of the most common in used prepositions.Archaic preposition διά has not survived in NEK since ancient times.It is said not to be used currently in NEK apart of special phrases and scholars(Mackridge, Holton,  Mackridge and Φιλιππάκη-Warburton)say it is in the group of less used generally 19 but even currently it is not used preposition in Greek statutory texts.
Problem:Greek noun διάκριση has the modern meaning which is discrimination.Cypriot noun διάκριση has the ancient meaning of to separate which needs the adjective κοινωνικός, meaning social.

Table 3 .
Use of Ancient Greek language in legal Greek language -samples of morphology 2. Secondly the ending -αί which is used in Cypriot texts does not exist in NEK.Άρθρο (in the title of every article of the Constitution) Άρθρον (in the title of every article of the Constitution)Th e noun Άρθρο (article) exists in NEK in the form which is given in the text of the Greek Constitution.Type of the noun Άρθρον given in the Cypriot Constitution is the archaic type which has not survived in NEK.In Ancient Greek grammar there was a group of nouns of neutral gender which had the ending -ν, but in NEK this "ending n" -ν is not used.masculineendings-ος in the place of Modern Greek feminine ending -η or -α.20Auerbach M.,Golias M. 1954: 27 -30.

Table 4 .
Use of Ancient Greek language in legal Greek language -samples of syntaxIn the Greek Constitution, the title is given in Nominative case which is typical for Modern Greek.In Cypriot Constitution the title has diff erent, ancient -structure: Preposition Περί + genitive case των θεμελίδων δικαιωμάτων / ελευθεριών Problem: According to the normative dictionary of Modern Greek (NEK) 3 the preposition Περί exists mostly in special phrases in NEK.According to Modern Greek grammar 4 this preposition not to be used currently in NEK apart from special phrases and scholars say this preposition belongs to the group of less used.Consequently Cypriot texts seem more archaic in the aspect of syntax.Problem: Th e preposition υπό in NEK exists only in some phrases and in common Greek it can be expressed: κάτω από + αccusative case.It means: under, below and it is used in that way in the Greek text.Consequently text shows the archaic, traditional way of expression which I very rare in NEK nowadays.Th e preposition υπό together with noun in Genitive case in the structure with verb in passive voice and with has in text following scheme subject + verb in passive voice + preposition υπό + noun in genitive case (genetivus auctoris).