Keywords
OCC
detachment fault
megamullion
slow-spreading ridge
How to Cite
Abstract
The mantle is the most voluminous part of the Earth. However, mantle petrologists usually have to rely on indirect geophysical methods or on material found ex situ. In this review paper, we point out the in-situ existence of oceanic core complexes (OCCs), which provide large exposures of mantle and lower crustal rocks on the seafloor on detachment fault footwalls at slow-spreading ridges. OCCs are a common structure in oceanic crust architecture of slow-spreading ridges. At least 172 OCCs have been identified so far and we can expect to discover hundreds of new OCCs as more detailed mapping takes place. Thirty-two of the thirty-nine OCCs that have been sampled to date contain peridotites. Moreover, peridotites dominate in the plutonic footwall of 77% of OCCs. Massive OCC peridotites come from the very top of the melting column beneath ocean ridges. They are typically spinel harzburgites and show 11.3–18.3% partial melting, generally representing a maximum degree of melting along a segment. Another key feature is the lower frequency of plagioclase-bearing peridotites in the mantle rocks and the lower abundance of plagioclase in the plagioclase-bearing peridotites in comparison to transform peridotites. The presence of plagioclase is usually linked to impregnation with late-stage melt. Based on the above, OCC peridotites away from segment ends and transforms can be treated as a new class of abyssal peridotites that differ from transform peridotites by a higher degree of partial melting and lower interaction with subsequent transient melt.
References
Andreani, M., Ildefonse, B., Delacour, A., Escartín, J., Godard, M. & Dyment, J., 2010. Tectonic Structure and Internal Composition of the Rainbow Massif, Mid-Atlantic Ridge 36°14’N. Abstract presented at AGU Chapman Conference, Agros, Cyprus.
Andreani, M., Escartín, J., Delacour, A., Ildefonse, B., Godard, M., Dyment, J., Fallick, A.E. & Fouquet, Y., 2014. Tectonic structure, lithology, and hydrothermal signature of the Rainbow massif (Mid-Atlantic Ridge 36°14′N). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 15, 3543–3571.
ARCYANA, 1975. Transform fault and rift valley from bathyscaph and diving saucer. Science 190, 108–116.
Auzende, J.-M., Bideau, D., Bonatti, E., Cannat, M., Honnorez, J., Lagabrielle, Y., Malavieille, J., Mamaloukas-Frangoulis, V. & Mével, C., 1989. Direct observation of a section through slow-spreading oceanic crust. Nature 337, 726–729.
Baines, A.G., Cheadle, M.J., Dick, H.J.B., Hosford Scheirer, A., John, B.E., Kusznir, N.J. & Matsumoto, T., 2003. A mechanism for generating the anomalous uplift of oceanic core-complexes: Atlantis Bank, SW Indian Ridge. Geology 31, 1105–1108.
Baines, A.G., Cheadle, M.J., Dick, H.J.B., Hosford Scheirer, A., John, B.A., Kusznir, N. J. & Matsumoto, T., 2007. Evolution of the Southwest Indian Ridge from 55°45’E to 62°E: Changes in Plate-Boundary Geometry Since 26 Ma. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q06022.
Bagherbandi, M., Tenzer, R. Sjöberg, L.E. & Novák, P., 2013. Improved global crustal thickness modeling based on the VMM isostatic model and non-isostatic gravity correction. Journal of Geodynamics 66, 25–37.
Bartsch, C., 2014. Structural and magnetic investigation of two spreading systems around the Rodriguez Triple Junction with respect to hydrothermal activity. Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Universität Hannover, PhD thesis, 237 pp.
Beltenev, V., Ivanov, V., Rozhdestvenskaya, I., Cherkashov, G., Stepanova, T., Shilov, V., Pertsev, A., Davydov, M., Egorov, I., Melekestseva, I., Narkevsky, E. & Ignatov, V., 2007. A new hydrothermal field at 13°30′N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. InterRidge News 16, 9–10.
Blackman, D.K. & Collins, J.A., 2010. Lower crustal variability and the crust/mantle transition at the Atlantis Massif oceanic core complex. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L24303.
Blackman, D.K., Cann, J.R., Janssen, B. & Smith, D.K., 1998. Origin of extensional core complexes: Evidence from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at Atlantis Fracture Zone. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 315–333.
Blackman, D.K., Karson, J.A., Kelley, D.S., Cann, J.R., Gretchen L., Früh-Green, G.L., Gee, J.S., Hurst, S.D., John, B.E., Morgan, J., Nooner, S.L., Ross, D.K, Schroeder, T.J. & Williams, E.A., 2002a. Geology of the Atlantis Massif (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 30°N): Implications for the evolution of an ultramafic oceanic core complex. Marine Geophysical Research 23, 443–469.
Blackman, D.K., Lyons, S., Cann, J. & Morgan, J., 2002b. Morphology of a 9 Myr old oceanic core complex: Mid Atlantic Ridge 30°N, 43°W. Abstract presented at AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, USA.
Blackman, D.K., Karner, G.D. & Searle, R.C., 2008. Three-dimensional structure of oceanic core complexes: Effects on gravity signature and ridge flank morphology, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 30°N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 9, 1–20.
Blackman, D.K., Canales, J.P. & Harding, A., 2009. Geophysical signatures of oceanic core complexes. Geophysical Journal International 178, 593–613.
Blackman, D.K., Ildefonse, B., John, B.E., Ohara, Y., Miller, D.J., Abe, N., Abratis, M., Andal, E.S., Andréani, M., Awaji, S., Beard, J.S., Brunelli, D., Charney, A.B., Christie, D.M., Collins, J., Delacour, A.G., Delius, H., Drouin, M., Einaudi, F., Escartín, J., Frost, B.R., Früh-Green, G., Fryer, P.B., Gee, J.S., Godard, M., Grimes, C.B., Halfpenny, A., Hansen, H.-E., Harris, A.C., Tamura, A., Hayman, N.W., Hellebrand, E., Hirose, T., Hirth, J.G., Ishimaru, S., Johnson, K.T.M., Karner, G.D., Linek, M., MacLeod, C.J., Maeda, J., Mason, O.U., McCaig, A.M., Michibayashi, K., Morris, A., Nakagawa, T., Nozaka, T., Rosner, M., Searle, R.C., Suhr, G., Tominaga, M., von der Handt, A., Yamasaki, T. & Zhao, X., 2011. Drilling constraints on lithospheric accretion and evolution at Atlantis Massif, Mid-Atlantic Ridge 30°N. Journal of Geophysical Research 116, B07103.
Bodinier, J.-L. & Godard, M. 2003. Orogenic, Ophiolitic and Abyssal Peridotites, [In:] R.W. Carlson (Ed.): Treatise on Geochemistry. Vol. 2: The Mantle and Core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 103–170.
Bonatti, E., Peyve, A., Kepezhinskas, P., Kurentsova, N., Seyler, M., Skolotnev, S. & Udintsev, G., 1992. Upper mantle heterogeneity below the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 0°–15°N. Journal of Geophysical Research 97, 4461–4476.
Bonatti, E., Ligi, M., Brunelli, D., Cipriani, A., Fabretti, P., Ferrante, V., Gasperini, L. & Ottolini, L., 2003. Mantle thermal pulses below the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and temporal variations in the formation of oceanic lithosphere. Nature 423, 499–505.
Buck, R.W., 1988. Flexural rotation of normal faults. Tectonics 7, 959–973.
Canales, J.P., Detrick, R.S., Bazin, S., Harding, A.J. & Orcutt, J.A., 1998. Off-axis crustal thickness across and along the East Pacific Rise within the MELT area. Science 280, 1218–1221.
Canales, J.P., Detrick, R.S., Toomey, D.R. & Wilcock, W.S.D., 2003. Segment-scale variations in the crustal structure of 150–300 kyr old fast spreading oceanic crust (East Pacific Rise, 8°15’–10°5’N) from wide-angle seismic refraction profiles. Geophysical Journal International 152, 766–794.
Canales, J.P., Sohn, R.A. & deMartin, B.J., 2007. Crustal structure of the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) segment (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 26°10’N): Implications for the nature of hydrothermal circulation and detachment faulting at slow spreading ridges. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q08004.
Cann, J.R., Blackman, D.K., Smith, D.K., McAllister, E., Janssen, B., Mello, S., Avgerinos, E., Pascoe, A.R, & Escartín, J., 1997. Corrugated slip surfaces formed at North Atlantic ridge-transform intersections. Nature 385, 329–332.
Cannat, M., 1993. Emplacement of mantle rocks in the seafloor at mid-ocean ridges. Journal of Geophysical Research 98, 4163–4172.
Cannat, M., 1996. How thick is the magmatic crust at slow spreading oceanic ridges. Journal of Geophysical Research 101, 2847–2857.
Cannat, M. & Casey, J.F., 1995. An Ultramafic Lift at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Successive Stages of Magmatism in Serpentinized Peridotites from the 15°N Region. Petrology and Structural Geology 6, 5–34.
Cannat, M., Mével, C., Maia, M., Deplus, C., Durand, C., Gente, P., Agrinier, P., Belarouchu, A., Dubuisson, G., Humler, E. & Reynolds, J., 1995. Thin crust, ultramafic exposures, and rugged faulting patterns at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (22°–24°N). Geology 23, 49–52.
Cannat, M., Sauter, D., Mendel, V., Ruellan, E., Okino, K., Escartín, J., Combier, V. & Baala, M., 2006. Modes of seafloor generation at a melt-poor ultraslow-spreading ridge. Geology 34, 605–608.
Cannat, M., Sauter, D., Escartín, J., Lavier, L. & Picazo, S., 2009. Oceanic corrugated surfaces and the strength of the axial lithosphere at slow spreading ridges. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 288, 174–183.
Carlson, R.W., 2003. Introduction to Volume 2. [In:] R.W. Carlson (Ed.): Treatise on geochemistry. Vol. 2: The Mantle and Core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 15–21.
Chamot-Rooke, N., Fournier, M., Petit, C., Fabbri, O., Huchon, P., Lepvrier C. & Maillot, B., 2008. Sheba Ridge’s Oceanic Core Complexes. Abstract presented at EGU General Assembly, Vienna, Austria.
Choi, S.H., Mukasa, S.B. & Shervais, J.W., 2008. Initiation of Franciscan subduction along a large-offset fracture zone: Evidence from mantle peridotites, Stonyford, California. Geology 36, 595–598.
Christie, D.M., West, B.P., Pyle, D.G. & Hanan, B.B., 1998. Chaotic topography, mantle flow and mantle migration in the Australian-Antarctic discordance. Nature 394, 637–644.
Coogan, L.A., 2013. The lower oceanic crust. Manuscript submitted for publication. 113 pp.
d’Acremont, E., Leroy, S., Maia, M., Patriat, P., Beslier, M.-O., Bellahsen, N., Fournier, M. & Gente, P., 2006. Structure and evolution of the eastern Gulf of Aden: Insights from magnetic and gravity data (Encens-Sheba MD117cruise). Geophysical Journal International 165, 786–803.
Dannowski, A., Grevemeyer, I., Ranero, C.R., Ceuleneer, G., Maia, M., Morgan, J.P. & Genteet, P., 2010. Seismic structure of an oceanic core complex at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 22°19′N. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, 1–15.
deMartin, B.J., Sohn, R.A., Canales, J.P. & Humphris, S.E., 2007. Kinematics and geometry of active detachment faulting beneath the Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse (TAG) hydrothermal field on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geology 35, 711–714.
Dick, H.J.B., 1989. Abyssal peridotites, very slow-spreading ridges and ocean ridge magmatism. [In:] A.D. Saunders & M.J. Norry (Eds): Magmatism in the Ocean Basins. Geological Society, London, 71–105.
Dick, H.J.B., 2010. Tale of two core complexes: Contrasting crustal architecture and fault geometries. Abstract presented at AGU Chapman Conference, Agros, Cyprus.
Dick, H.J.B. & Zhou, H., 2015. Ocean rises are products of variable mantle composition, temperature and focused melting. Nature Geoscience 8, 68–74.
Dick, H.J.B., Bryan, W.B. & Thompson, G., 1981. Low-angle faulting and steady-state emplacement of plutonic rocks at ridge-transform intersections. [In:] A.R. Ritsema (Ed.): European Seismological Commisssion Meeting and Abstracts. Eos, Transaction American Geophysical Union 62, 406.
Dick H.J.B., Schouten, H., Meyer, P,S., Gallo, D.G., Bergh, H., Tyce, R., Patriat, P., Johnson, K.T.M., Snow, J. & Fisher, A., 1991. Tectonic evolution of the Atlantis II Fracture Zone. [In:] R.P. Von Herzen, P.T. Robinson et al. (Eds): Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 118, 359–398.
Dick H.J.B., Natland J.H., Alt J.C., Bach, W., Bideau, D., Gee, J.S., Haggas, S., Hertogen, J.G.H., Hirth, G., Holm, P.M., Ildefonse, B., Iturrino, G.J., John, B.E., Kelley, D.S., Kikawa, E., Kingdon, A., LeRoux, P.J., Maeda, J., Meyer, P.S., Miller, D.J., Naslund, H.R., Niu, Y.-L. Robinson, P.T., Snow, J., Stephen, R.A., Trimby, P.W., Worm, H.-U. & Yoshinobu, A., 2000. A long in situ section of lower oceanic crust: Results of ODP Leg 176 drilling at the Southwest Indian Ridge. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 179, 31–51.
Dick, H.J.B., Arai, S., Hirth, G., John, B.J. & KROO-06 Scientific Party, 2001. A subhorizontal cross-section through the crust mantle boundary at the SW Indian Ridge. Geophysical Research Abstracts 3, 794.
Dick, H.J.B., Lin, J. & Schouten, H., 2003. An ultraslow spreading class of ocean ridge. Nature 426, 405–412.
Dick, H.J.B., Natland, J.H. & Ildefonse, B., 2006. Past and future impact of deep drilling in the oceanic crust and mantle. Oceanography 19, 72–80.
Dick, H.J.B., Tivey, M.A. & Tucholke, B.E., 2008. Plutonic foundation of a slow-spreading ridge segment: Oceanic core complex at Kane Megamullion, 23°30’N, 45°20’W. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 9, Q05014.
Dick, H.J.B., Lissenberg, C.J., & Warren, J.M., 2010. Mantle melting, melt transport, and delivery beneath a slow-spreading ridge: The paleo-MAR from 23°15′N to 23°45′N. Journal of Petrology 51, 425–467.
Drolia, R.K. & DeMets, C., 2005. Deformation in the diffuse India-Capricorn-Somalia triple junction from a multibeam and magnetic survey of the northern Central Indian Ridge, 3°S–10°S. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 6, Q09009.
Drouin, M., Godard, M. & Ildefonse, B., 2007. Origin of olivine-rich troctolites from IODP Hole U1309D in the Atlantis Massif (Mid-Atlantic Ridge): petrostructural and geochemical study. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89(53), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract T53B-1300.
Drouin, M., Godard, M., Ildefonse, B., Bruguier, O. & Garrido, C.J., 2009. Geochemical and petrographic evidence for magmatic impregnation in the oceanic lithosphere at Atlantis Massif, Mid-Atlantic Ridge (IODP Hole U1309D, 30°N). Chemical Geology 264, 71–88.
Drouin, M., Ildefonse, B. & Godard, M., 2010. A micro-structural imprint of melt impregnation in slow spreading lithosphere: Olivine-rich troctolites from the Atlantis Massif, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 30°N, IODP Hole U1309D. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 11, Q06003.
Dyment, J., Bissessur, D., Bucas, K., Cueff-Gauchard, V., Durand, L., Fouquet, Y., Gaill, F., Gente, P., Hoise, E., Ildefonse, B., Konn, C., Lartaud, F., LeBris, N., Musset, G., Nunes, A., Renard, J., Riou, V., Tasiemski, A., Thibaud, R., Torres, P., Yatheesh, V., Vodjdani, I. & Zbinden, M, 2009. Detailed investigation of hydro-thermal site Rainbow, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 36°13’N: Cruise MoMARDream. InterRidge News 18, 22–24.
Dziewonski, A.M. & Anderson, D.L, 1981. Preliminary reference Earth model. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 25, 297–356.
Escartín, J. & M. Cannat, M., 1999. Ultramafic exposures and the gravity signature of the lithosphere near the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zones (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 14–16° N). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 171, 411–424.
Escartín, J. & Canales, J.P., 2011. Detachments in oceanic lithosphere: Deformation, magmatism, fluid flow, and ecosystems. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 92, 31.
Escartín, J., Mével, C., Mac-Leod, C.J. & McCaig, A.M., 2003. Constraints on deformation conditions and the origin of oceanic detachments: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge core complex at 15°45′N. Geophysics, Geochemistry, Geosystems 4, 1067.
Escartín, J., Smith, D.K., Cann, J. Schouten, H., Langmuir, C.H. & Escrig, S., 2008. Central role of detachment faults in accretion of slow-spread oceanic lithosphere. Nature 455, 790–794.
Escartín, J., Soule, S.A., Cannat, M., Fornari, D.J., Düşünür, D. & Garcia, R., 2014. Lucky Strike seamount: Implications for the emplacement and rifting of segment-centered volcanoes at slow spreading mid-ocean ridges. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 15, 4157–4179.
Exon, N., Pandey, D., Gallagher, S., Rajan, S., Coffin, M., Takai, K. & other workshop participants, 2011. Detailed report on Indian Ocean IODP workshop. Integrated Ocean Drilling Program, Goa, India, 50 pp.
Fouquet, F., Barriga, F., Charlou, J.L., Elderfield, H., German, C.R., Ondreas, H., Parson, L., Radford-Knoery, J., Relvas, J., Ribeiro, A., Schultz, A., Apprioual, R., Cambon, P., Costa, I., Donval, J.P., Douville, E., Landure, J.Y., Normand, A., Pelle, H., Ponsevera, E., Riches, S., Santana, H. & Stephan, M., 1998. FLORES diving cruise with the Nautile near the Azores – First dives on the Rainbow field: hydrothermal sweater/mantle interaction. InterRidge News 7, 24–28.
Fournier, M., Chamot-Rooke, N., Petit, C., Huchon, P., Al-Kathiri, A., Audin, L., Beslier, M.-O., d’Acremont, E., Fabbri, O., Fleury, J.-M. Khanbari, K., Lepvrier, C., Leroy, S., Maillot, B. & Merkouriev S., 2010. Arabia-Somalia plate kinematics, evolution of the Aden-Owen-Carlsberg triple junction, and opening of the Gulf of Aden. Journal of Geophysical Research 115, B04102.
Fournier, M., Petit, C., Chamot-Rooke, N., Fabbri, O., Huchon, P., Maillot, B. & Lepvrier, C., 2008. Do ridge–ridge–fault triple junctions exist on Earth? Evidence from the Aden–Owen–Carlsberg junction in the NW Indian Ocean. Basin Research 20, 575–590.
Fujimoto, H., Cannat, M., Fujioka, M.K., Gamo, T., German, C., Mével, C., Muench, U., Ohta, S., Oyaizu, M., Parson, L., Searle, R., Sohrin, Y. & T. Yama-ashi, T., 1999. First submersible investigation of mid-ocean ridges in the Indian Ocean. InterRidge News 8, 22–24.
Fujiwara, T., Lin, J. Matsumoto, T. Kelemen, P.B. Tucholke, B.E. & Casey, J.F., 2003. Crustal Evolution of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near the Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone in the last 5 Ma. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 4(3), 1024.
Gente, P., Thibaud, R., Dyment, J., Fouquet, Y., Ildefonse, B., Hoisé, E., Bissessur, D., Yatheesh, V. & the MOMARDREAM 2008 Scientific Party, 2008. High resolution topography of the Rainbow hydrothermal area, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 36°14’N. Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 89(53), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract T43B-2027.
Gold, T., 1999. The Deep Hot Biosphere. Copernicus, New York, 235 pp.
Gràcia, E., Bideau, D., Hekinian, R., Lagabrielle, Y., & Parson, L. M., 1997. Along-axis magmatic oscillations and exposure of ultramafic rocks in a second-order segment of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (33° 43’N to 34° 07’N). Geology 25, 1059–1062.
Gràcia, E., Charlou, J.L., Radford-Knoery, J. & Parson, L., 2000. Non-transform offsets along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge south of the Azores (38°–34°N): Ultramafic exposures and hosting of hydrothermal vents. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 177, 89–103.
Grevemeyer, I., Reston, T.J. & Moeller, S., 2013. Micro-seismicity of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 7°S–8°15’S and at the Logatchev Massif oceanic core complex at 14°40’N–14°50’N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14, 3532–3554.
Han, X., Wu, Z. & Qiu, B., 2012. Morphotectonic characteristics of the northern part of the Carlsberg Ridge near the Owen Fracture Zone and the occurrence of oceanic core complex formation. Abstract presented at AGU Fall Meeting, San Francisco, USA.
Hellebrand, E., Snow, J.E., Dick, H.J.B. & Hofmann, H., 2001. Coupled major and trace-element indicators in mid-ocean ridge peridotites. Nature 410, 677–681.
Hosford, A., Tivey, M. Matsumoto, T., Dick, H.J.B., Schouten, H. & Kinoshita, H., 2003. Crustal magnetization and accretion at the Southwest Indian Ridge near the Atlantis II fracture zone, 0-25 Ma. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 2169.
Ildefonse, B., Andreani, M., Hoise, E., Ballu, V., Escartín, J., Dyment, J. & Fouquet, Y., 2007. Further geological sampling around the Rainbow hydrothermal site, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Eos, Transaction American Geophysical Union 88(52), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract T53B-1306.
Jaroslow, G.E., Hirth, G. & Dick, H.J.B., 1996. Abyssal peridotite mylonites: implications for grain-size sensitive flow and strain localization in the oceanic lithosphere. Tectonophysics 256, 17–37.
Jousselin, D., Nicolas, A. & Boudier, F., 1998. Detailed mapping of a mantle diapir below a paleo-spreading center in the Oman ophiolite. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 18153–18170.
Jousselin, D., Nicolas, A., Boudier, F. & Meshi, A., 2013. High-T detachment shear zone in Mirdita ophiolite (Albania). Abstract nr T23F-2656 presented at AGU Fall Meetin, San Francisco, USA.
Kamesh Raju, A.K., Samudrala, K., Drolia, R.K., Amarnath, D., Ramachandran, R. & Mudholkar, A., 2012. Segmentation and morphology of the Central Indian Ridge between 3°S and 11°S, Indian Ocean. Tectonophysics 554–557, 114–126.
Karson, J.A., Früh-Green, G.L., Kelley, D.S., Williams, E.A., Yoerger, D.R. & Jakuba, M., 2006. Detachment shear zone of the Atlantis Massif core complex, Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 30°N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 7, Q06016.
Karsten, J., Klein, E., Martinesz, F., Mühe, R., Sturm, M., Coleman, T., Hayasaka, J., Jung, D., Murray, G., Muse, B., Newsom, A., Stewart, M., Tougas, S. & Gallegos, J., 1999. The northern Chile Ridge revealed: Preliminary cruise report of PANORAMA Expedition Leg 04. InterRidge News 8, 15–21.
Kelemen, P.B., Hirth, G., Shimizu, N., Spiegelman, M. & Dick, H.J.B., 1997. A review of melt migration processes in the asthenospheric mantle beneath oceanic spreading centers. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 355, 283–318.
Kelley, D.S., Karson, J.A., Blackman, D.K., Fruh-Green, G.L., Butterfield, D.A., Lilley, M.D., Olson, E.J., Schrenk, M.O., Roe, K.K., Lebon, G.T. & Rivizzigno, P., 2001. An off-axis hydrothermal vent field near the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 30°N. Nature 412, 145–149.
Klein, E.M., 2003. Geochemistry of the Igneous Oceanic Crust. [In:] R.L. Rudnick (Ed.): Treatise on geochemistry. Vol. 3: The Earth’s Crust. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 433–463.
Kostitsyn, Yu. A., Silantyev, S.A., Belousova, E.A., Bortnikov, N.S., Krasnova, E.A. & Cannat, M., 2013. Time of the formation of the oceanic core complex of the hydrothermal field in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge (12°58′N): Evidence from zircon study. Doklady Earth Sciences, 447, 1301–1305.
Kumagai, H., Nakamura, K., Toki, T., Morishita, T., Okino, K., Ishibashi, J.I., Tsunogai, U., Kawaguchi, S., Gamo, T., Shibuya, T., Sawaguchi, T., Neo, N., Joshima, M., Sato, T. & Takai, K., 2008. Geological background of the Kairei and Edmond hydrothermal fields along the Central Indian Ridge: Implications of their vent fluids’ distinct chemistry. Geofluids 8, 239–251.
Lagabrielle, Y., Brovarone, A.V. & Ildefonse, B., 2015. Fossil oceanic core complexes recognized in the blue schist metaophiolites of Western Alps and Corsica. Earth-Science Reviews 141, 1–26.
Lavier, L.L., Buck, W.R. & Poliakov, A.N.B, 1999. Self-consistent rolling-hinge model for the evolution of large-offset low-angle normal faults. Geology 27, 1127–1130.
Macdonald, K.C., Scheirer, D.S. Carbotte, S. & Fox, P.J, 1993. It’s only Topography: Part 2. GSA Today 3, 29–35.
MacLeod, C.J., Escartín, J., Banerji, D., Banks, G.J., Gleeson, M., Irving, D.H.B., Lilly, R.M., McCaig, A.M., Niu, Y., Allerton, S. & Smith, D.K., 2002. Direct geological evidence for oceanic detachment faulting: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 15°45’N. Geology 30, 879–882.
MacLeod, C.J., Searle, R.C., Murton, B.J., Casey, J.F., Mallows, C., Unsworth, S.C., Achenbach, K.L. & Harris, M., 2009. Life cycle of oceanic core complexes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 287, 333–344.
MacLeod, C.J., Carlut, J., Escartín, J., Horen, H. & Morris, A., 2011. Quantitative constraint on footwall rotations at the 15°45′N oceanic core complex, Mid-Atlantic Ridge: Implications for oceanic detachment fault processes. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 12, Q0AG03.
Maffione, M., Morris, A. & Anderson, M.W., 2013. Recognizing detachment-mode seafloor spreading in the deep geological past. Scientific Reports 3, 2336.
Mallows, C. & Searle, R.C., 2012. A geophysical study of oceanic core complexes and surrounding terrain, Mid-Atlantic Ridge 13°N–14°N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 13, Q0AG08.
Manatschal, G., Sauter, D., Karpoff, A.M., Masini, E., Mohn, G. & Lagabrielle, Y., 2011. The Chenaillet ophiolite in the French/Italian Alps: an ancient analogue for an oceanic core complex? Lithos 124, 169–184.
Martinez, F. & Taylor, B., 2002. Mantle wedge control on back-arc crustal accretion. Nature 416, 417–420.
Marty, B. & Yokochi, R., 2006. Water in the Early Earth. Review in Mineralogy & Geochemistry 62, 421–450.
McCaig, A., 2010. Hydrothermal Systems and Detachment Faulting. Abstract presented at AGU Chapman Conference, Agros, Cyprus.
McCaig, A.M., Cliff, B., Escartín, J., Fallick, A.E. & MacLeod, C.J., 2007. Oceanic detachment faults focus very large volumes of black smoker fluids. Geology 35, 935–938.
McCollom, T.M. & Seewald, J.S., 2013. Serpentinites, Hydrogen, and Life. Elements 9, 129–134.
Ménez B, Pasini V. & Brunelli, D., 2012. Life in the hydrated suboceanic mantle. Nature Geoscience 5,133–137.
Mével, C., Agrinier, P., Cannat, M., Decitre, S., Dappoigny, A., Humler, E., Jendrzejewski, N., Kienast, J.R., Ludden, J., Murton, B., Oufi, O., Rabain, A., Seyler, M. & Tamura, Y., 1997. Sampling the South West Indian Ridge: first results of the EDUL cruise (R/V Marion Dufresne II, August 1997). InterRidge News 6, 25–26.
Miller, D.J. & Christensen, N.I, 1997. Seismic velocities of lower crustal and upper mantle rocks from the slow spreading Mid-Atlantic Ridge, south of the Kane transform zone (MARK). [In:] J.A. Karson, M. Cannat, D.J. Miller & D. Elthon (Eds): Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results 153, 437–454.
Miranda, J.M., Silva, P.F., Lourenço, N., Henry, B., Costa, R. & Team, S., 2002. Study of the Saldanha massif (MAR, 36º34’N): Constrains from rock magnetic and geophysical data. Marine Geophysical Research 23, 299–318.
Mitchell, N., Escartín, J. & Allerton, S., 1998. Detachment Faults at Mid-Ocean Ridges Garner Interest. Eos, Transaction American Geophysical Union 79, 127.
Morishita, T., Hara, K., Nakamura, K., Sawaguchi, T., Tamura, A., Arai, S., Okino, K., Takai, K. & Kumagai, H., 2009. Igneous, alteration and exhumation processes recorded in abyssal peridotites and related fault rocks from an oceanic core complex along the Central Indian Ridge. Journal of Petrology 50, 1299–1325.
Morris, J.D. & Ryan, J.G., 2003. Subduction zone processes and implications for changing composition of the upper and lower mantle. [In:] R.W. Carlson (Ed.): Treatise on geochemistry. Vol. 2: The Mantle and Core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 451–470.
Mudholkar, A., Kamesh Raju, K.A., Babu, E.V.S.S.K., Sreenivas, B., Vijaya Kumar, T. & Bhaskar Rao, Y.J., 2012. Oceanic core complexes along Carlsberg Ridge. International Conference: Ridges and Hotspots around the Mascarene Islands, LUX Island resort, Mauritius.
Nakamura, K., Morishita, T., Bach, W., Klein, F., Hara, K., Okino, K., Takai, K. & Kumagai, H., 2009. Serpentinized olivine-rich gabbroic rocks exposed near the Kairei Hydrothermal Field, Central Indian Ridge: Insights into the origin of the Kairei hydrothermal fluid supporting a unique microbial ecosystem. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 280, 128–136.
Nicolas, A., Boudier, F. & Meshi, A., 1999. Slow spreading accretion and mantle denudation in the Miridita ophiolite (Albania). Journal of Geophysical Research 104, 15155–15167.
Niu, Y. & Batiza, R., 1994. Magmatic processes at a slow spreading ridge segment: 26°S Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 19719–19740.
Nuriel, P., Katzir, Y., Abelson, M., Valley, J.W., Matthews, A., Spicuzza, M.J. & Ayalon, A., 2009. Fault-related oceanic serpentinization in the Troodos ophiolite, Cyprus: Implications for a fossil oceanic core complex. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 282, 34–46.
Ohara, Y., Yoshida, T., Kato, Y. & Kasuga, S., 2001. Giant megamullion in the Parece Vela backarc basin. Marine Geophysical Researches 22, 47–61.
Ohara, Y., Okino, K., Snow, J.E. & KR03-01 Shipboard Scientific Party, 2003a. Preliminary report of Kairei KR03-01 cruise: amagmatic tectonics and lithospheric composition of the Parece Vela Basin. Interridge News 12, 27–29.
Ohara, Y., Fujioka, K., Ishii, T. & Yurimoto, H., 2003b. Peridotites and gabbros from the Parece Vela backarc basin: unique tectonic window in an extinct backarc spreading ridge. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 4, 8611.
Okino, K., Matsuda, K., Christie, D.M., Nogi, Y. & Koizumi, K., 2004. Development of oceanic detachment and asymmetric spreading at the Australian-Antarctic Discordance. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 5, Q12012.
Palmer, J., Sempere, J.-C., Christie, D.M. & Morgan, J.P., 1993. Morphology and tectonics of the Australian-Antarctic Discordance between 123°E and 128°E. Marine Geophysical Researches 15, 121–152.
Palmiotto, C., Corda, L., Ligi, M., Cipriani, A., Dick, H.J.B., Douville, E., Gasperini, L., Montagna, P., Thil, F., Bosetti, A.M., Balestra, B. & Bonatti, E., 2013. Nonvolcanic tectonic islands in ancient and modern oceans. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14, 4698–4717.
Parkinson, I.J. & Pearce, J.A., 1998. Peridotites from the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Forearc (ODP Leg 125): evidence for mantle melting and melt-mantle interaction in a supra-subduction zone setting. Journal of Petrology 39, 1577–1618.
Pearson, D.G., Canil, D. & Shirey, S.B., 2003. Mantle Samples Included in Volcanic Rocks: Xenoliths and Diamonds. [In:] R.W. Carlson (Ed.): Treatise on geochemistry. Vol. 2: The Mantle and Core. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 171–275.
Penrose Conference Participants, 1972. Penrose Field Conference: Ophiolites. Geotimes 17, 24–25.
Petersen, S., Kuhn, K., Kuhn, T., Augustin, N., Hekinian, R., Franz L. & Borowski, C., 2009. The geological setting of the ultramafic-hosted Logatchev hydrothermal field (14°45′N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and its influence on massive sulfide formation. Lithos 112, 40–56.
Planert, L., Flueh, E.R., Tilmann, F., Grevemeyer, I. & Reston, T.J., 2010. Crustal structure of a rifted oceanic core complex and its conjugate side at the MAR at 5°S: Implications for melt extraction during detachment faulting and core complex formation. Geophysical Journal International 181, 113–126.
Pyle, D.G., 1993. Geochemistry of mid-ocean ridge basalt within and surrounding the Australian Antarctic Discordance. Ph.D. thesis. Oregon State University, 178 pp.
Pyle, D.G., Christie, D.M. & Mahoney, J.J., 1992. Resolving an isotope boundary within the Australian-Antarctic Discordance. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 112, 161–178.
Rampone, E., Piccardo, G. B., Vannucci, R. & Bottazzi, P., 1997. Chemistry and origin of trapped melts in ophiolitic peridotites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 41, 4557–4569.
Ranero, C.R. & Reston, T.J., 1999. Detachment faulting at ocean core complexes. Geology 27, 983–986.
Reston, T.J., Weinrebe, W., Grevemeyer, I., Flueh, E.R., Mitchell, N.C., Kirstein, L., Kopp, C. & Kopp, H., 2002. A rifted inside corner massif on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge at 5°S. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 200, 255–269.
Reston, T.J., Ranero, C.R., Ruoff, O., Perez-Gussinye, M. & Danobeitia, J.J., 2004. Geometry of extensional faults developed at slow-spreading centres from seismic reflection data in the Central Atlantic (Canary Basin). Geophysical Journal International 159, 591–606.
Reves-Sohn, R. & Humphris, S., 2004. Seismicity and fluid flow of the TAG Hydrothermal Mound-4: Cruise report, STAG Leg 4. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, 36 pp.
Ribeiro Da Costa, I., Barriga, F.J., Viti, C., Mellini, M. & Wicks, F.J., 2008. Antigorite in deformed serpentinites from the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. European Journal of Mineralogy 20, 563–572.
Sato, T., Okino, K. & Kumagai, H. 2009. Magnetic structure of an oceanic core complex at the southernmost Central Indian Ridge: Analysis of shipboard and deep-sea three-component magnetometer data. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 10, Q06003.
Schroeder, T. & John, B.E., 2004. Strain localization on an oceanic detachment fault system, Atlantis Massif, 30°N, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 5, Q06015.
Schroeder, T., Cheadle, M.J., Dick, H.J.B., Faul, U., Casey, J.F. & Kelemen, P.B., 2007. Nonvolcanic seafloor spreading and corner-flow rotation accommodated by extensional faulting at 15°N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge: A structural synthesis of ODP Leg 209. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q06015.
Scott, H.P., Hemley, R.J., Mao, H.K., Herschbach, D.R., Fried, L.E., Howard, W.M. & Bastea, S., 2004. Generation of methane in the Earth’s mantle: In situ high pressure-temperature measurements of carbonate reduction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101, 14023–14026.
Searle, R.C. & Bralee, A.V, 2007. Asymmetric generation of oceanic crust at the ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge, 64°E, Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 8, Q015015.
Searle, R.C., Cannat, M., Fujioka, K., Mével, C., Fujimoto, H., Bralee, A. & Parson, L., 2003. FUJI Dome: A large detachment fault near 64°E on the very slow-spreading southwest Indian Ridge. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 4, 9105.
Shipboard Scientific Party, 2003. Leg 209 Preliminary Report. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Texas, 100 pp.
Shipboard Scientific Party, 2005a. Expedition 304 Preliminary Report: Oceanic Core Complex Formation, Atlantis Massif. Integrated Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Texas, 63 pp.
Shipboard Scientific Party, 2005b. Expedition 305 Preliminary Report: Oceanic Core Complex Formation, Atlantis Massif. Integrated Ocean Drill. Program, College Station, Texas, 78 pp.
Skinner, B.J., Porter, S.C. & Park, J., 2004. Dynamic Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology. John Wiley, New Jersey, 630 pp.
Silantyev, S.A., Mironenko, M.V. & Novoselov, A.A., 2009a. Hydrothermal systems in peridotites of slow-spreading mid-oceanic ridges. Modeling phase transitions and material balance: Downwelling limb of a hydrothermal circulation cell. Petrology, 17, 138–157.
Silantyev, S.A., Mironenko, M.V. & Novoselov, A.A, 2009b. Hydrothermal systems hosted in peridotites at slow-spreading ridges. Modeling phase transformations and material balance: Upwelling limb of the hydrothermal cell. Petrology, 17, 523–536.
Smith, D.K., Cann, J.R. & Escartín, J., 2006. Widespread active detachment faulting and core complex formation near 13° N on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Nature 442, 440–443.
Smith, D.K., Escartín, J., Schouten, H. & Cann, J.R., 2008. Fault rotation and core complex formation: Significant processes in seafloor formation at slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 13°–15°N). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 9, Q03003.
Smith, D.K., Escartín, J., Schouten, H. & Cann, J.R., 2012. Active long-lived faults emerging along slow-spreading mid-ocean ridges. Oceanography 25, 94–99.
Smith, D.K., Schouten, H., Dick, H.J.B., Cann, J.R., Salters, V., Marschall, H.R., Ji, F., Yoerger, D., Sanfilippo, A., Parnell-Turner, R., Palmiotto, C., Zheleznov, A., Bai, H., Junkin, W., Urann, B., Dick, S., Sulanowska, M., Lemmond, P. & Curry, S., 2014. Development and evolution of detachment faulting at 50 km of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge near 16.5°N. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 15, 4692–4711.
Solomon, S.C., Huang, P.Y. & Meinke, L., 1988. The seismic moment budget of slowly spreading ridges. Nature 334, 58–60.
Suhr, G., Hellebrand, E., Johnson, K. & Brunelli, D., 2008. Stacked gabbro units and intervening mantle: A detailed look at a section of IODP Leg 305, Hole U1309D. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 9, Q10007.
Tamura, A., Arai, S., Ishimaru, S. & Andal, E.S., 2008. Petrology and geochemistry of peridotites from IODP Site U1309 at Atlantis Massif, MAR 30°N: micro- and macro-scale melt penetrations into peridotites. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 155, 491–509.
Tebbens, S.F., Cande, S.C., Kovacs, L., Parra, J.C., LaBrecque, J.L. & Vergara, H., 1997. The Chile ridge: A tectonic framework. Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 12035–12059.
Thatcher, W. & Hill, D.P., 1995. A simple model for fault generated morphology of slow-spreading mid-oceanic ridges. Journal of Geophysical Research 100, 561−570.
Tivey, M.A., Schouten, H. & Kleinrock, M.C. 2003. A near-bottom magnetic survey of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge axis at 26°N: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the TAG segment. Journal of Geophysical Research 108, 2277.
Tremblay, A., Meshi, A. & Bedard, J.H., 2009. Oceanic core complexes and ancient oceanic lithosphere: Insight from Iapetan and Tethyan ophiolites (Canada and Albania). Tectonophysics 473, 36–52.
Tucholke, B.E. & Lin, J., 1994. A geological model for the structure of ridge segments in slow spreading ocean crust. Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 11937–11958.
Tucholke, B.E., Lin, J. & Kleinrock, M.C., 1996. Mullions, megamullions, and metamorphic core complexes on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Eos, Transaction American Geophysical Union 77(46), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract F724.
Tucholke, B.E., Lin, J., Kleinrock, M.C., Tivey, M.A., Reed, T.B., Golf, J. & Jaroslow, G.E., 1997. Segmentation and crustal structure of the western Mid-Atlantic Ridge flank, 25°25’–27°10’N and 0–29 m.y. Journal of Geophysical Research 102, 203–223.
Tucholke, B.E., Lin, J. & Kleinrock, M.C., 1998. Megamullions and mullion structure defining oceanic metamorphic core complexes on the mid-Atlantic ridge. Journal of Geophysical Research 103, 9857–9866.
Tucholke, B.E., Fujioka, K., Ishihara, T., Hirth, G., & Kinoshita, M., 2001. Submersible study of an oceanic megamullion in the central North Atlantic. Journal of Geophysical Research 106, 145–161.
Tucholke, B.E., Behn, M.D., Buck, R. & Lin, J., 2008. The role of melt supply in oceanic detachment faulting and formation of megamullions. Geology 36, 455–458.
Tucholke, B.E., Humphris, S.E. & Dick, H.J.B., 2013. Cemented mounds and hydrothermal sediments on the detachment surface at Kane Megamullion: A new manifestation of hydrothermal venting. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14, 3352–3378.
Wang, W., Chu, F., Zhu, J., Dong, Y., Yu, X., Chen, L. & Li, Z., 2013. Mantle melting beneath the Southwest Indian Ridge: signals from clinopyroxene in abyssal peridotites. Acta Oceanologica Sinica 32, 50–59.
White, R.S., McKenzie, D. & O’Nions, R.K., 1992. Oceanic crustal thickness from seismic measurements and rare earth element inversions. Journal of Geophysical Research 97, 19683–19715.
Whitney, D.L., Teyssier, C., Rey, P.F. & Buck, W.R., 2013. Continental and oceanic core complexes. Geological Society of America Bulletin 125, 273–298.
Wilkinson, J.F.G., 1986. Classification and average chemical compositions of common basalts and andesites. Journal of Petrology 27, 31–62.
Wilson, M., 1997. Igneous Petrogenesis. Springer, Dordrecht, 466 pp.
Wilson, S., 2010. Mantle source composition beneath Mid Atlantic Ridge: controls on the development of e-MORB segment and oceanic core complexes. School of Ocean and Earth Sciences, University of Southampton, PhD thesis, 392 pp.
Xu, M., Canales, J.P., Tucholke, B.E. & DuBois, D.L., 2009. Heterogeneous seismic velocity structure of the upper lithosphere at Kane oceanic core complex, Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 10, Q10001.
Yi, S.B., Oh, C.W., Pak, S.J., Kim, J., & Moon, J.W., 2014. Geochemistry and petrogenesis of mafic-ultramafic rocks from the Central Indian Ridge, latitude 8°–17° S: denudation of mantle harzburgites and gabbroic rocks and compositional variation of basalts. International Geology Review 56, 1691–1719.
Yu, Z., Li, J., Liang, Y., Han, X., Zhang, J. & Zhu, L., 2013. Distribution of large-scale detachment faults on mid-ocean ridges in relation to spreading rates. Acta Oceanologica Sinica, 12, 109–117.
Zhao, M., Canales, J.P. & Sohn, R.A., 2012. Three-dimensional seismic structure of a Mid-Atlantic Ridge segment characterized by active detachment faulting (Trans-Atlantic Geotraverse, 25°55′N–26°20′N). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 13, Q0AG13.
Zhao, M., Qui, X., Li, J., Sauter, D., Ruan, A., Chen, J., Cannat, M., Singh, S., Zhang, J., Wu, Z. & Niu, X, 2013. Three-dimensional seismic structure of the Dragon Flag oceanic core complex at the ultraslow spreading Southwest Indian Ridge (49°39’E). Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 14, 4544–4563.
Zhou, H., 2015. Regional geology of active Dragon Hydrothermal Field, Southwest Indian Ridge. IODP workshop: Indian ocean crust & mantle drilling, Woods Hole, MA, USA, May 13–16, 2015.
Zhou, H. & Dick, H.J.B., 2013. Thin crust as evidence for depleted mantle supporting the Marion Rise. Nature 494, 195–200.
Zonenshain, L.P., Kuzmin, M.I., Lisitsin, A.P., Bogdanov, Y.A. & Baranov, B.V., 1989. Tectonics of the Mid-Atlantic rift valley between the TAG and MARK areas (26–24°N): evidence for vertical tectonism. Tectonophysics 159, 1–23.
License
Copyright (c) 2015 Jakub Ciazela, Juergen Koepke, Henry J.B. Dick, Andrzej Muszynski
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.