Keywords
non-metallic mineral deposits
gemstones
decorative stones
prehistory
field exploration
jewellery
How to Cite
Abstract
An overview is presented of gemstones from eastern Kazakhstan in terms of their geographical distribution, geological provenance and genesis, gemmological characteristics, historical use and current applications. Locally occurring precious, semi-precious and decorative stones were extracted and traded along the northern part of the Silk Road that traversed the area in earlier historical times. Currently, non-metallic minerals, which largely originate from mafic igneous and metamorphic bodies of the Altay and Kalba Mountains of Kazakhstan, still are insufficiently known and exploited industrially only marginally. For the present study, selected depositories of coloured stones at the Mineralogy Museum of the East Kazakhstan State Technical University were used, supplemented by the newly collected material during personal fieldwork in the southern Altay between 2005 and 2015. Standard documentation of the gemstones selected is provided, alongside with their known occurrence sites and an evaluation of the perspective gemstone-bearing deposits with respect to regional morphostructural bedrock characteristics. The most precious gemstones include topaz, corundum (sapphire and ruby), beryl (emerald and aquamarine), coloured tourmalines, agates as well as diamonds. Despite the great variety, the majority of these traditionally most valued stones are currently commercially not viable, unlike high-quality decorative stones.
References
Akishev, K.A., 1978. The Issyk Barrow. The Art of Saks of Kazakhstan. Art, Moskva, 142 pp. [in Russian].
Balakirev, V.G., Kievlenko, Ye.A. & Nikolskaya, L.V., 1979. Mineralogy and Crystal Physics of Earth Silicon Jewellery Variety. Nauka, Moscow, 150 pp. [in Russian].
Barfield, T., 1989. The Perilous Frontier: Nomadic Empires and China. Cambridge, Mass., Blackwell Press, 303 pp.
Baumer, C., 2016a. The History of Central Asia. Vol. 1: The Age of the Steppe Warriors. I.B. Tauris Press, 372 pp.
Baumer, C., 2016b. The History of Central Asia. Vol. 2: The Age of the Silk Roads. I.B. Tauris Press, 288 pp.
Baumer, C., 2016c. The History of Central Asia. Vol.3: The Age of Islam and the Mongols. I.B. Tauris Press, 408 pp.
Beldeeva, E. & Somin, V., 2014. Green economy principles in Altai Krai. Himalayan and Central Asian Studies, 18, 232–249.
Bowersox, G.W., Foord, E.E., Laurs, B.M., Shigley, J.E. & Smith, C.P., 2000. Ruby and Sapphire from Jegdalek, Afghanistan. Gems and Gemology 36, 110–126.
Bukanov, V.V., 2011. Russian Gemstones encyclopedia. Granit, Praha, 472 pp.
Chernenko, Z.I., 2007 Industrial Types of Deposits of Minerals of Precious Stones. EKSTU, Ust-Kamenogorsk, 92 pp. [in Russian].
Chernenko, Z.I., 2011. Crystallography and Mineralogy. EKSTU Press, Ust-Kamenogorsk, 45 pp. [in Russian].
Chernenko, Z.I., 2015. Analysis of the perspective marble and marmorized limestone deposits as facing and ornamental stones in East Kazakhstan, Vestnik of the EKSTU (Earth Sciences) 3, 15–17 [in Russian].
Chernenko, Z.I. & Chlachula, J., 2017. Precious and decorative non-metallic minerals from East Kazakhstan: geological deposits and present utilisation. Proceedings 17th International Multidisciplinary Scientific Geo-conference SGEM, Sofia-Albena 17, Science and Technologies in Geology Exploration and Mining, STEF92 Technology Press, Sofia, pp. 447–454.
Chernenko, Z.I., Bocharova, A.E. & Alexandrova, M.A., 2012. Mineralogy and Conditions for Formation of Ornamental and Precious Stones of East Kazakhstan and Perspectives of Their Use. Ust-Kamenogorsk. Serikbaev ESKTU Press, Ust-Kamenogorsk, 10 pp. [in Russian].
Chernenko, Z.I., Goryainova, A.A., Kaloshin, K.A. & Zorkina, A.G., 2014. Stereoscopic placement of deposits and occurrence of precious and ornamental stones of East Kazakhstan. [In:] „Creativity and Innovative Development of Kazakhstan“, Ust-Kamenogorsk, [in Russian].
Chlachula, J., 2010. Pleistocene climate change, natural environments and Palaeolithic peopling of East Kazakhstan. In Eurasian Perspectives of Environmental Archaeology. Quaternary International 220, 64–87.
Chlachula, J. & Seljanina, E., 2007. Quaternary investigations of southern Altai, East Kazakhstan. [In:] Modern Approaches to Biodiversity Protection in the Context of Steady Development Achievement of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Ust-Kamenogorsk, pp. 18–21.
Christian, D., 2018. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia. Vol. II: Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today 1260–2000. Willey Blackwell, Chichester, 619 pp.
Chugunov, K., Parzinger, H. & Nagler, A., 2003. Der skythische Fürstengrabhügel von Arzhan in Tuva. Vorbericht der russisch-deutschen Ausgrabungen 2000–2002. Eurasia Antiqua 9, 113–162.
Chupakhin,V., 1968. Physical Geography of Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata. „Mektep“ Press, 260 pp. [in Russian].
CIBJO, 2012. The Gemstone Book. CIBJO Coloured Stone Commission. The World Jewellery Confederation, 63 pp.
O’Donoghue, M., 1988. Gemstones. Chapman & Hall, London, 372 pp.
Domínguez-Bella, S., 2018. The Encyclopaedia of Archaeo-logical Science. Willey online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119188230.saseas0251
Dyachkov, B.A., Chernenko, Z.I. & Hohlov, P.I., 1996. Decorative and Ornamental stones of East Kazakhstan. East Kazakhstan CSRI Press, Ust-Kamenogorsk, vol. 7, pp. 1–6 [in Russian].
Dyachkov, B.A., Mayorova, N.P. & Gavrilenko, O.D., 1998. About microlithic bunches in granite of the Delbegeteysky complex. [In:] Geology of Kazakhstan, vol. 3. pp. 59–70, KAS Press, Almaty [in Russian].
Dyachkov, B.A., Mayorova, N.P. & Chernenko, Z.I., 2014a. History of East Kazakhstan geological structures development in the Hercynian, Cimmerian and Alpine cycles of tectonic genesis, part ІІ. Proceedings of the Ust-Kamenogorsk Kazakh Geographical Society, Ust-Kamenogorsk, pp. 42–48 [in Russian].
Dyachkov, B.A., Mayorova, N.P., Chernenko, Z.I. & Teut Ye, V., 2014b. About metallogenic specialization of Kalba granitoids (East Kazakhstan). [In:] Materials, Kiev, pp. 59–61 [in Russian].
Erofeev, V.S., 1969. Geological History of the Southern Peripheries of the Altai in Paleogene and Neogene. Academy of Science of the Kazakh SSR, Alma-Ata, 166 pp. [in Russian].
Fersman, A.E., 1920. The Precious and Coloured Stones of Russia. The 4th State Typography, Petrograd, vol. 1, 420 pp.; vol. 2, 386 pp. [in Russian].
Gargiulo, M.F., Bjerd, E.A. & Mogessie, A., 2013. Spinel group minerals in metamorphosed ultramafic rocks from Río de Las Tunas belt, Central Andes, Argentina. Geologova Acta 11, 133–148.
Garnie, V., Guiliani, G., Ohnenstetter, D., Fallick, A.E., Dubessy, J., Banks, D., Vinh, H.Q., Lhomme, T., Maluski, H., Pécher, A., Bakhsh, K.A., van Long, P., Trinh, P.T. & Schwarz, D., 2008. Marble-hosted ruby deposits from Central and Southeast Asia: Towards a new genetic model. Ore Geology Reviews 34, 169–191.
Gavrilenko, E.V., Calvo Pérez, B., Castroviecho Bolivar, R. & Garcia del Amo, D., 2006. Emeralds from the Delbegetey deposit (Kazakhstan): mineralogical characteristics and fluid-inclusion study. Mineralogical Magazine 70, 159–173.
Goodwin, G., 1996. The art and architecture of Islam 1250–1800. Asian Affairs 27, 177–256.
Grigoriev, V.V. (Ed.), 1950. Kazakhstan, General Physiogeographic Characteristics. Nauka, Leningrad, 492 pp. [in Russian].
Grigorovich, M.B., Petrov, S.B., Agocaryan, Z.A., Kuchinskaya, E.F. & Popugayeva, L.A., 1990. Minerals of Kazakhstan. IGS AS Kaz. USR, 196 pp. [in Russian].
Gryaznov, M.P. 1980. Arzhan – a Royal Kurgan of the Early Scythian Period. Nauka, Leningrad, 61 pp. [in Russian].
Gusev, A.I., 2007. The Altai Gemology with the Basis of Gemmo-Tourism. Biysk State University Press, 187 pp. [in Russian].
Gusev, A.I., 2010. Classification of granitoids on the foundation of composition of biotites. Successes of Modern Science 4, 57–59 [in Russian].
Gusev, A.I., 2020. Gemology of Altai and Salair. Pedagogical State University of Biysk, 320 pp. [in Russian].
Gutsalov, S.Y., 2007. Burials of the nomadic elite in the South Ural region (mid-1st Millennium BC). Archaeology, Ethnology and Anthropology of Eurasia 30, 75–92.
Heflik, W. & Natkaniec-Nowak, L., 2011. Gemmologia. Antykwa, ed. II, 352 pp. [in Polish].
Jenkins, A.L. & Larsen, R.A., 2004. Gemstone Identification Using Raman Spectroscopy. Spectroscopy 19, 20–25.
Kane, R.E., 2009. Seeking low-cost perfection: Synthetic gems. Elements 5, 169–174.
Keller, P.C. & Fuquan, W., 1986. A survey of gemstone resources of China. Gems and Gemology, Springer, 3–13.
Khazanov, A.M., 1984. Nomads and the Outside World. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 256 pp.
Kievlenko, E., 1980. Prospecting and Evaluation of Deposits of Gem and Decorative Stones. Nedra, Moscow, 263 pp. [in Russian].
Kievlenko, E, E., 1989. Decorative Variety of Coloured Rocks of the USSR: Reference Book. Nauka, Moscow, 272 pp. [in Russian].
Kim, M.J., 2002. A Study on the Scythian gold plaques. Journal of Fashion Business 6, 1–14.
Klein, C. & Dutrow, B., 2007. Manual of Mineral Science. 23rd ed., New York, John Wiley, 716 pp.
Kornilov, N.I & Solodova, U.P., 1986. Jeweller Stones. Nedra Press, Moscow, 280 pp. [in Russian].
Kostov, R.I., 2010. Review on the mineralogical systematics of jasper and related rocks. Proceedings, Archaeometry Workshop, pp. 209–213.
Kravchenko, M.M, Kaypov, A.K. & Sidorenko, A.K., 1974. Geology of the USSR. vol. 16. East Kazakhstan. Nedra, Moscow, pp. 330–351 [in Russian].
Kuzmina, E.E., 2007. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. Leiden & Boston, Brill Academic Publisher, 766 pp.
Kuzmina, E.E., 2008. The Prehistory of the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press, 264 pp.
Lobanov, K. V. & Gaskov, I.V., 2012. The Karchiga copper massive sulphide deposit in the high-grade metamorphosed rocks of the Kurchum block: geologic structure, formation, and metamorphism (Rudny Altai). Russian Geology and Geophysics 53, 77–91.
Lyutoev, V.P., 2004. Structure and Spectroscopy of Chalcedony. Ural Branch RAS, Ekaterinburg, 116 pp.
Manutchehr-Danai, M., 2010. Dictionary of Gems and Gemology. Springer, Berlin-Heidelberg, 565 pp.
Martinovskiy, G.I., 2003. The Great Altay: Geology and Metallogeny. GIZ, Almaty, 145 pp. [in Russian].
Mavrodina, N.M., 2017. The Kolyvan Vase. State Hermitage Press, Sankt Petersburg, 28 pp. [in Russian].
Mitrayeva, N.M., 1990. Minerals of Kazakhstan. Gylym Press, Alma-Ata, 221 pp. [in Russian].
Mukaeva, L.N., 2008. Mineral Prospection in the Altai in the Pre-Soviet Time. Gorno Altai University (GAGU) Press, Gorno Altaisk, 344 pp. [in Russian].
Mukaeva, L.N., 2011. Search for colored stones in the Altay in the XVIIIth Century. Vestnik of the Tomsk State University (History) 344, 77–83 [in Russian].
Muratov, M.V. & Slavin, V.I., 1953. Short Geological Characteristics of the Kalba. Academy of Science USSR, Moskva–Leningrad, 84 pp. [in Russian].
Natkaniec-Nowak, L., 2010. Mineralogy of Selected Precious and Decorative Stones of Afghanistan. AGH Press, Rozprawy i monografie, 206 pp. [in Polish].
Nassau, K., 2009. Gemstone Materials. Willey on-line Library. DOI: 10.1002/0471238961.0705131914011919. a01.pub2
Nassau, K. & Nassau, J., 1980. The Growth of Synthetic and Imitation Gems. [In:] Freyhardt, H.C. (Ed.): Growth and Properties. Crystals (Growth, Properties, and Applications), vol 2. Springer, Berlin, pp. 1–50.
Nekhoroshev, V.P., 1967. Eastern Kazakhstan. Geological Structure. [In:] Sidorenko, A.V. & Nedra, M. (Eds): Geology of the USSR, vol. 41, Nauka, Moskva–Leningrad, 467 pp. [in Russian].
Obruchev, V.A., 1951. Selected Works on Geography of Asia. vol. 2, Geografizdat, Moskva, 400 pp. [in Russian].
Pacekov, U.M., Jukova, A.A., Alekseyev, A.G. & Artemeva, E.L., 1990. Minerals of Kazakhstan. IGS AS Kaz USR, Alma Ata, 196 pp. [in Russian].
Parzinger, H., 2017. Burial mounds of Scythian elites in the Eurasian steppe: New discoveries. Journal of the British Academy 5, 331–355.
Polk, P., 2012 Collecting Rocks, Gems and Minerals: Identification, Values and Lapidary Uses. Krause Publications, Iola, 304 pp.
Polosmak, N.V., 2001. Inhabitants of Ukok. Infolio, Novosibirsk, 334 pp. (in Russian).
Ponahlo, J., 2000. Cathodoluminescence as a Tool in Gemstone Identification. [In:] Pagel, M., Barbin, V., Blanc, P. & Ohnenstetter, D. (Eds): Cathodoluminescence in Geosciences. Springer, Berlin, pp. 479–500.
Pugachenkova, G.A., 1996. The Antiquities of Transoxiana in the Light of Investigations in Uzbekistan (1985–1990). Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia 2, 1–38.
Ren, J., 2013. International Geological Map of Asia 1: 5000 000. Geological Publishing House.
Rid, P.J., 1986. Gemological Dictionary. Nedra Press, Moscow, 287 pp. [in Russian].
Sachanbiński, M., Janeczek, J., Platonov, A. & Rietmeijer, F., 2001. The origin of colour of chrysoprase from Szklary (Poland) and Sarykul Boldy (Kazakhstan). Neues Jahrbuch fuer Mineralogie 177, 61–76.
Samashev, Z., 2011. Berel. Archaeological Institute, Taimas Press, Astana, 236 pp. [in Russian].
Samashev, Z., 2014. Tsar Valley. Archaeological Institute, Astana, 236 pp. [in Kazakh].
Sapargaliev, Ye.M. & Kravchenko, M.M., 1999. Non-metallic mineral resources in the development of East Kazakhstan. [In:] Mineral resources of East Kazakhstan and their multipurpose use. ESTUPress, Ust-Kamenogorsk, pp. 48–54 [in Russian].
Saparov, K., Chlachula, J. & Yeginbayeva, A., 2018. Toponymy of the Ancient Sary-Arka (North-Eastern Kazakhstan). Quaestiones Geographicae 37, 37–54.
Sementsov, V.T., 2004. Some properties of the jewellery cordilerites of the Lyubushkinskoye deposit in Gorno Altai. Bulletin of Natural Resources of Gorno Altay (Geology, Geophysics, Hydrogeology, Geoecology, Mineral and Water Resources) 2, 57–58 [in Russian].
Scherba, G.N., Bespayev, Х.А. & Dyachkov, B.А., 2000. Large Altay (Geology and Metallogeny). RIO VAC RK, Almaty, 400 pp. [in Russian].
Schulz, S.S., 1948. Analysis of Neotectonics and Relief of the Tian-Shan. Proceedings of the Soviet Geographical Society, vol.1, Nauka, Moskva-Leningrad, 201 pp. [in Russian].
Schumann, W., 2006. Gemstones of the World. 3rd ed., Sterling Press, New York, 272 pp.
Shvetsov A.Y., 1998. The history of the discovery and study of deposits of ornamental stones in the Altay. [In:] The Kolyvan: History, History and Art. Siberian Provinces, 1728–1998. ASU Press, Barnaul, pp. 127–140 [in Russian].
Simcikova, M., 2007. Petrological Context of Biodiversity Studies (Katon-Karagay National Park). [In:] Chlachula J. (Ed.): Biodiversity Protection of the Southern Altai in the Context of Contemporary Environmental Transformations and Socio-Economic Development, Irbis, Stare Mesto, pp. 27–35.
Simonov, V.A., Paskov, I.V. & Kovyazin, S.V., 2010. Physico-chemical parameters from melt inclusions for the formation of the massive sulphide deposits in the Altai–Sayan Region, Central Asia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 57,737–754.
Smith, C.P., 1998. Rubies and pink sapphires from the Pamir Mountain Range, Tajikistan (former USSR). Journal of Gemmology 26, 103–109.
Smith, G., 1980. Jewells. Mir Publishing, Moscow, 586 pp. [in Russian].
Sokolev, S.V. & Bulgak, L.V., 1981. Some gems from the collection of the Fersman Mineralogical Museum. Journal of the Gemmological Society of Japan 8, 99–102.
Sokolova, E.N., Smirnov, S.Z., Astrelina, I.E., Annikova, I.Yu., Vladimirov, A.G. & Kotler, P.D., 2011. Ongonite-elvan magmas of the Kalguty ore-magmatic system (Gorny Altai): composition, fluid regime, and genesis. Russian Geology and Geophysics 51, 1378–1400.
Sorokina, E.S., Litvinenko, A.K., Hofmeister, W., Haeger, T., Jacob, E.D. & Nasridinov, Z.Z., 2015. Rubies and sapphires from Snezhnoe, Tajikistan. Gems and Gemology 15, 160–175.
Stone, D., 2004. Jewels. ONYX Press, Saint Petersburg – Moscow, 94 pp. [in Russian].
Vdovina, T.A, 2001. Decorations from precious stones of the Scythian and Hun-Sarmatian periods of Gorno Altay. [In:] Cultural Heritage of North Asia, Barnaul, pp. 324–326 [in Russian].
Velikovskaya, E.M., 1946. Relief Development of the Southern Altay and Kalba and Deep Gold Placers. Bulletin of the Moscow Institute of Petrology, Geology Section 21, 57–77 [in Russian].
Velikovskaya, E.M., 1947. Pliocene and Quaternary deposits and relief evolution of Kalba. Moscow State University Press, Geology 124, 59–63 [in Russian].
Veselova, L.K., 1970. Morphostructure of the South-Eastern Kazakhstan Mountains. [In:] Geography of Desertic and Mountain Region of Kazakhstan.Nauka, Moskva–Leningrad, pp. 38–48 [in Russian].
Wang, S., Wang, Y., Liao, Y., Kang, X. & Chen, J., 1994. Chrysoberyl in a granitic pegmatite in the Altai area, Xinjiang. Journal of the Xinjiang Institute of Technology 15, 142–149.
Weinstein, M., 2013. Precious and Semi-Precious Stones. John Wiley & Sons, London, 191 pp.
Ziskind, M.S., 1989. Ornamental Stones. Nauka, Leningrad, 256 pp. [in Russian].
Żaba, J., 2010. The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Minerals and Rocks. Videograf II, Chorzów, 503 pp. [in Polish].
License
Copyright (c) 2020 Jiri Chlachula
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 Unported License.