Keywords
caprock
knickpoints
plunge pools
tufa
How to Cite
Abstract
A waterfall is a very steep (commonly nearly vertical) fall of some magnitude in a river course. Waterfalls are widespread fluvial landforms that have been described from many parts of the world. Thirty-eight World Heritage Properties include waterfalls in their designation. In addition, some waterfalls are actual or potential geomorphosites. Waterfalls occur in almost all climatic environments, though they are particularly common in formerly glaciated areas. They occur on a huge diversity of rock types, although in general, they do not form persistent or large falls on soft or unconsolidated rocks. Waterfalls also occur in a wide range of geomorphological settings: glaciated areas, areas of active tectonism, areas of sea-cliff retreat and sea-level change, great escarpments on passive margins, basins with river capture, rifted and faulted areas and areas that have been subjected to megaflooding. Multiple processes account for waterfall retreat and varying rates of recession. Although the greatest interest has been in rates of waterfall recession, there are examples of waterfalls that prograde as a result of tufa deposition.
References
Alexandrowicz Z., 1994. Geologically controlled waterfall types in the Outer Carpathians. Geomorphology 9(2): 155– 165.
Anderson R.S., Riihimaki C.A., Safran E.B., MacGregor K.R., 2006. Facing reality: Late Cenozoic evolution of smooth peaks, glacially ornamented valleys, and deep river gorges of Colorado’s Front Range. In: S.D.Willett, N.Hovius, M.T.Brandon, D.M.Fisher (eds.), Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evolution, Special Paper of the Geological Society of America 398: 397–418. DOI: 10.1130/2006.2398(25).
Arber E.A.N., 1911. The Coast Scenery of North Devon. Dent, London.
Baynes E.R., Attal M., Niedermann S., Kirstein L.A., Dugmore A.J., Naylor M., 2015. Erosion during extreme flood events dominates Holocene canyon evolution in northeast Iceland. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 112(8): 2355–2360. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1415443112.
Baynes E.R., Lague D., Attal M., Gangloff A., Kirstein L.A., Dugmore A.J., 2018. River self-organisation inhibits discharge control on waterfall migration. Scientific Report 8: 2444.
Berlin M.M., Anderson R.S., 2007. Modeling of knickpoint retreat on the Roan Plateau, western Colorado. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 112, F03S06. DOI:10.1029/2006JF000553.
Birot P., 1968. The Cycle of Erosion in Different Climates. Batsford, London.
Bishop P., Goldrick G., 1992. Morphology, processes and evolution of two waterfalls near Cowra, NSW. Australian Geographer 23(2): 116–121.
Bloom A.L., 1998. Geomorphology. 3rd edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Bonacci O., Andrić I., Roje-Bonacci T., 2017. Hydrological analysis of Skradinski Buk tufa waterfall (Krka River, Dinaric karst, Croatia). Environmental Earth Sciences 76: 669. DOI:10.1007/s12665-017-7023-9.
Buckle C., 1978. Landforms in Africa. Addison-Wesley Longman Limited, London.
Büdel J. 1982. Climatic Geomorphology. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Chisholm G., 1885. Rapids and waterfalls. Scottish Geographical Magazine 1(9): 401–422.
Clark J.D. (ed.), 1952. The Victoria Falls. Commission for the Preservation of Natural and Historical Monuments and Relics: Northern Rhodesia, Lusaka.
Clayton P.D., Pearson R.G., 2016. Harsh habitats? Waterfalls and their faunal dynamics in tropical Australia. Hydrobiologia 775: 123–137.
Cole E., 2015. Impetuous torrents: Scottish waterfalls in travellers’ narratives, 1769–1830. Scottish Geographical Journal 131(1): 49–66.
Cook S.C., Kennedy B.M., Villeneuve M.C., 2018. Engineering geology model of the Crater Lake outlet, Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand, to inform rim breakout hazard. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 350: 69–83.
Cotton C. A. 1941. Landscape. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Crosby B.T., Whipple K.X., 2006. Knickpoint initiation and distribution within fluvial networks: 236 waterfalls in the Waipaoa River, North Island, New Zealand. Geomorphology 82(1–2): 16–38.
Curzon G.N. 1923. Tales of Travel. Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Davis W. M., 1884 Gorges and waterfalls. American Journal of Science 28(3): 407–416.
Derricourt R.M., 1976. Retrogression rate of the Victoria Falls and the Batoka Gorge. Nature 264(5581): 23–25.
DiBiase R.A., Whipple K.X., Lamb M.P., Heimsath A.M., 2015. The role of waterfalls and knickzones in controlling the style and pace of landscape adjustment in the western San Gabriel Mountains, California. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 127(3–4): 539–559.
Donovan R.N., Ragland D.A., Schaefer D., 1988. Turner Falls Park; Pleistocene tufa and travertine and Ordovician platform carbonates, Arbuckle Mountains, southern Oklahoma. In: O.T.Hayward (ed.), South-Central Section of the Geological Society of America, Centennial Field Guide 4: 153–158.
Dramis F., Fubelli G., 2015. Tufa dams in Tigray Northern Ethiopia) as Late Pleistocene–Holocene climate proxies. In: P.Billi (ed.), Landscapes and Landforms of Ethiopia. Springer, Dordrecht: 201–211.
Edgell H.S., 2006. Arabian Deserts. Springer, Dordrecht.
Ehrlich Ü., Reimann M., 2010. Hydropower versus non-market values of nature: a contingent valuation study of Jägala Waterfalls, Estonia. International Journal of Geology 3(4): 59–63.
Elston E.D., 1917. Potholes: their variety, origin and significance. Scientific Monthly 5(6): 554–567.
Enzel Y., Haviv I., Zilberman E., Whipple K.X., Stone J., Matmon A., Fifield K.L., 2005. Waterfall retreat rates along the Dead Sea western tectonic escarpment. American Geophysical Union, Fall Meeting, abstract id. H53D-0518.
European waterfalls, 2018. European waterfalls. Online: www. europeanwaterfalls.com (accessed 21 September 2018).
Fiorotto V., Barjastehmaleki S., Caroni E., 2016. Stability analysis of plunge pool linings. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 142(11): p.04016044.
Ford D.C., 1968. Waterfalls. In: R.W.Fairbridge (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. Reinhold, New York: 1219– 20.
Geikie A., 1893. Text-book of Geology. 3rd edition. Macmillan, London.
Gilbert G. K., 1895. Niagara Falls and their history. National Geogrgraphic Monographs 1(7): 203–236.
Goudie A., Gardner R., 1985. Discovering Landscape in England and Wales. George Allen and Unwin, London.
Goudie A., Viles H., 2015. The Naukluft Mountains and their tufa cascades. In: A.S.Goudie, H.A.Viles, Landscapes and Landforms of Namibia. Springer, Dordrecht: 133–136.
Gregory K.J. (ed.), 1997. Fluvial Geomorphology of Great Britain. Chapman and Hall, London.
Gregory J.W., 1911. Constructive waterfalls. Scottish Geographical Magazine 27(10): 537–546.
Gupta S., Collier J.S., Garcia-Moreno D., Oggioni F., Trentesaux A., Vanneste K., De Batist M., Camelbeeck T., Potter G., Van Vliet-Lanoë B., Arthur J.C., 2017. Two-stage opening of the Dover Strait and the origin of island Britain. Nature Comms. 8, article 15101.
Hankui Y., Wenxiau Z., Renhai H., 1984. The feature of karst waterfalls in Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau of China. Carsologica Sinica 2: 94–101.
Harbor D., Bacastow A., Heath A., Rogers J., 2005. Capturing variable knickpoint retreat in the Central Appalachians, USA. Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria 28(1): 23–36.
Haviv I., Enzel Y., Whipple K.X., Zilberman E., Matmon A., Stone J., Fifield K.L., 2010. Evolution of vertical knickpoints waterfalls) with resistant caprock: Insights from numerical modeling. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 115(F3). DOI: 10.1029/2008JF001187.
Haviv I., Enzel Y., Whipple K.X., Zilberman E., Stone J., Matmon A., Fifield L.K., 2006. Amplified erosion above waterfalls and oversteepened bedrock reaches. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 111(F4). DOI:10.1029/2006JF000461.
Hayakawa Y., Matsukura Y., 2003. Recession rates of waterfalls in Boso Peninsula, Japan, and a predictive equation. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 28(6): 675–684.
Hayakawa Y.S., 2011. Postglacial recession rates of waterfalls in Alpine glacial valleys. Transaction, Japanese Geomorphological Union 32(2): 179–184.
Hayakawa Y.S., 2013. Stability analysis of cliff face around Kegon Falls in Nikko, eastern Japan: an implication to its erosional mechanisms. International Journal of Geosciences 4(6): 8–16.
Hayakawa Y.S., Matsukura Y., 2009. Factors influencing the recession rate of Niagara Falls since the 19th century. Geomorphology 110(3–4): 212–216.
Hayakawa Y.S., Matsuta N., Maekado A., Matsukura Y., 2010, May. Decadal changes in fault-scarp knickpoints by bedrock erosion following 1999 Chi-Chi Earthquake in Taiwan. In: EGU General Assembly Conference Abstracts 12: 3063.
Hayakawa Y.S., Obanawa H., Matsukura Y., 2008a. Postvolcanic erosion rates of Shomyo Falls in Tateyama, central Japan. Geografiska Annaler, Series A, Physical Geography 90(1): 65–74.
Hayakawa Y.S., Yokoyama S., Matsukura Y., 2008b. Erosion rates of waterfalls in post-volcanic fluvial systems around Aso volcano, southwestern Japan. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 33(5): 801–812.
Hayman R., 2014. ‘All Impetuous Rage’: The cult of waterfalls in Eighteenth-century Wales. Landscapes 15(1): 23–43.
Hora S.L., 1932. Waterfalls as habitats of animals. Current Science 1(3): 60–62.
Hudson B.J. 2012. Waterfall. Nature and Culture. Reaktion Books, London.
Hudson B.J., 1999. Fall of beauty: The story of a Jamaican waterfall – a tragedy in three acts. Tourism Geographies 1(3): 343–357.
Hume W.F., 1925. Geology of Egypt, Volume 1: The Surface Features of Egypt, Their Determining Causes and Relation to Geological Structure. Government Press, Cairo.
Jansen J.D., Fabel D., Bishop P., Xu S., Schnabel C., Codilean A.T., 2011. Does decreasing paraglacial sediment supply slow knickpoint retreat? Geology 39(6): 543–546.
Kale V.S. (ed.), 2014. Landscapes and Landforms of India. Springer, Dordrecht.
Kale V.S., 2010. The Western Ghat: the great escarpment of India. In: P.Migoń (ed.), Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. Springer, Dordrecht: 257–264.
Kanthack F.E., 1921. Notes on the Kunene River, southern Angola. Geographical Journal 57(5), 321–336.
Kataoka K.S., 2011. Geomorphic and sedimentary evidence of a gigantic outburst flood from Towada caldera after the 15 ka Towada–Hachinohe ignimbrite eruption, northeast Japan. Geomorphology 125(1): 11–26.
Kothyari G., Pant P., Joshi M., Luirei K., Malik J., 2010. Active faulting and deformation of Quaternary landform Sub-Himalaya, India. Geochronometria 37(1): 63–71.
Kotlia B.S., Joshi L.M., 2013. Neotectonic and climatic impressions in the zone of Trans Himadri Fault THF), Kumaun Tethys Himalaya, India: A case study from palaeolake deposits. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie 57(3): 289–303.
Lake P., 1925. Physical Geography. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Lamb M.P., Dietrich W.E., 2009. The persistence of waterfalls in fractured rock. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 121(7–8): 1123–1134.
Lamb M.P., Howard A.D., Dietrich W.E. Perron J.T., 2007. Formation of amphitheater-headed valleys by waterfall erosion after large-scale slumping on Hawai ‘i. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 119(7–8): 805–822.
Lamb M.P., Mackey B.H., Farley K.A., 2014. Amphitheater-headed canyons formed by megaflooding at Malad Gorge, Idaho. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111(1): 57–62.
Lapotre M.G., Lamb M.P., 2015. Hydraulics of floods upstream of horseshoe canyons and waterfalls. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 120(7): 1227–1250.
Lee C.F., 1978. Stress relief and cliff stability at a power station near Niagara Falls. Engineering Geology 12: 193–204.
Lima A.G., Binda A.L., 2013. Lithologic and structural controls on fluvial knickzones in basalts of the Parana Basin, Brazil. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 48: 262–270.
Lima A.G., Flores D.M., 2017. River slopes on basalts: Slope-area trends and lithologic control. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 76: 375–388.
Limber P.W., Barnard P.L., 2018. Coastal knickpoints and the competition between fluvial and wave-driven erosion on rocky coastlines. Geomorphology 306: 1–12.
Lobeck A.K., 1939. Geomorphology. McGraw-Hill, New York and London.
Lyell C., 1875. Principles of Geology, 12th edition, Vol. 1. Murray, London. Lyell C., 1845. Travels in North America. John Murray, London.
Mabin M.C.G., 2000. In search of Australia’s highest waterfalls. Australian Geographical Studies 38(1): 85–90.
Mackey B.H., Scheingross J.S., Lamb M.P., Farley K.A., 2014. Knickpoint formation, rapid propagation, and landscape response following coastal cliff retreat at the last interglacial sea-level highstand: Kaua ‘i, Hawai ‘i. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 126(7–8): 925–942.
Malatesta L.C., Lamb M.P., 2017. Formation of waterfalls by intermittent burial of active faults. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 130(3–4): 522–536.
Manatū Taonga MCH [Manatū Taonga Ministry for Culture and Heritage], 2018. Waterfalls. Online: teara.govt.nz/en/waterfalls/sources (accessed 25 September 2018).
Marker M.E., 1971. Waterfall tufas: a facet of karst geomorphology in South Africa. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Suppl. Bd. 12: 138–152.
Matthes F.E., 1922. Which is the highest water fall in the World? Science 56(1438): 75–76.
McCarthy M., Spillane S., Walsh S., Kendon M., 2016. The meteorology of the exceptional winter of 2015/2016 across the UK and Ireland. Weather 71(12): 305–313.
Meinsen J., Winsemann J., Weitkamp A., Landmeyer N., Lenz A., Dölling M., 2011. Middle Pleistocene Saalian) lake outburst floods in the Münsterland Embayment NW Germany): impacts and magnitudes. Quaternary Science Review 30(19–20): 2597–2625.
Melo J.F., Pinheiro A.N. and Ramos C.M., 2006. Forces on plunge pool slabs: Influence of joints location and width. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 132(1): 49–60.
Migoń P., 2016. Jizerské Hory—an Interplay of Rock Control, Faulting and Inland Glaciation in the Evolution of a Granite Terrain. In: T.Pánek, J.Hradecký (eds.), Landscapes and Landforms of the Czech Republic. Springer, Dordrecht: 165–175.
Migoń P., Pijet-Migoń E., 2016. Geoconservation and tourism at geothermal sites – lessons learnt from the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand. Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 127(3): 413–421.
Migoń P., Woo K.S., Kasprzak M., 2018. Landform recognition in granite mountains in East Asia Seoraksan, Republic of Korea, and Huangshan and Sanqingshan, China) – a contribution of geomorphology to the UNESCO World Heritage. Quaestiones Geographicae 37(1): 103–114.
Montgomery D.R., Hallet B., Yuping L., Finnegan N., Anders A., Gillespie A., Greenberg H.M., 2004. Evidence for Holocene megafloods down the Tsangpo River gorge, southeastern Tibet. Quaternary Research 62(2): 201–207.
Moore A., Cotterill F., 2010. Victoria Falls: Mosi-0a-Tunya – the smoke that thunders. In: P. Migoń (ed.), Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. Springer Dordrecht: 143–153.
National Geographic, (2018). Waterfall. Online: www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/waterfall (accessed 28 August 2018).
Niland R., 2017. Death by water: The rise and fall of Los Saltos del Guairá. Environmental History 23(1): 56–81.
Nogueira A.C., Sarges R.R., 2001. Characterization and genesis of waterfalls of the Presidente Figueiredo region, northeast State of Amazonas, Brazil. Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências 73(2): 287–301.
Norman N., Whitfield G. 2006. Geological Journeys. Struik, Cape Town.
Nott J., Price D., 1994. Plunge pools and paleoprecipitation. Geology 22(11): 1047–1050.
Nott J.F., Price D.M., Bryant E.A., 1996. A 30,000 year record of extreme floods in tropical Australia from relict plungepool deposits: Implications for future climate change. Geophysical Research Letters 23(4): 379–382.
Ollier C., 1983. Tropical Geomorphology and long-term landscape evolution. Finisterra 18(36): 203–221.
Ortega J.A., Wohl E., Livers B., 2013. Waterfalls on the eastern side of Rocky mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Geomorphology 198: 37–44.
Ortega-Becerril J.A., Jorge-Coronado A., Garzón G., Wohl E., 2017. Sobrarbe Geopark: an example of highly diverse bedrock rivers. Geoheritage 9(4): 533–548.
Pasternack G.B., Ellis C.R., Marr J.D., 2007. Jet and hydraulic jump near-bed stresses below a horseshoe waterfall. Water Resources Research 43(7). DOI:10.1029/2006WR005774.
Pawar N.J., Kale V.S., Atkinson T.C., Rowe P.J., 1988. Early Holocene waterfall tufa from semi-arid Maharashtra Plateau India). Journal of the Geological Society of India 32: 513–515.
Philbrick S., 1970. Horizontal configuration and the rate of erosion of Niagara Falls. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 81(12): 3723–3732.
Philbrick S.S., 1974. What future for Niagara falls? Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 85(1): 91–98.
Phuong T.H., Duong N.T., Hai T.Q., Van Dong B., 2017. Evaluation of the geological heritage of the Dray Nur and Dray Sap waterfalls in the Central Highlands of Vietnam. Geoheritage 9(1): 49–57.
Plescia J., 2008. Quaternary volcanism in the San Francisco Volcanic Field: Recent basaltic eruptions that profoundly impacted the northern Arizona landscape and disrupted the lives of nearby residents. GSA Field Guide 11: 173–186.
Plumb G.A., 1993. A scale for comparing the visual magnitude of waterfalls. Earth-Science Review 34(4): 261–270.
Pryce R.S., 1995. A field investigation of planimetric knickpoint morphology from rock-bed sections of Niagara Escarpment fluvial systems Ontario). MA thesis, Wilfred Laurier University, Online: scholars.wlu.ca/etd/329 (accessed 27 September 2018).
Rashleigh E.C., 1935. Among the Waterfalls of the World. Jarrolds, London.
Ray C.M., Rahn P.H., 1997. The origin of waterfalls in the Black Hills, South Dakota. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 76, 119–130.
Reader’s Digest, 1980. Book of Natural Wonders. Reader’s Digest Association, Inc., Pleasantville, New York.
Reader’s Digest, 1993. Discovering the Wonders of our World. Reader’s Digest Association, London.
Rudoy A.N., 2002. Glacier-dammed lakes and geological work of glacial superfloods in the Late Pleistocene, Southern Siberia, Altai Mountains. Quaternary International 87(1): 119–140.
Russell I.C. 1898. River Development. John Murray, London.
Sanders D., Unterwurzacher M., Rüf B., 2006. Microbially-induced calcium carbonate in tufas of the western Eastern Alps: a first overview. Geo. Alp. 3: 167–189.
Sandford K.S., 1928. The Wadi Um Dud in the Eastern Desert of Egypt. Geographical Journal 72(2): 144–158.
Santos E.M., Mariano G., do Nascimento M.A.L., 2015. Geotouristic potential of waterfalls in igneous and metamorphic rocks: the case of the city of Bonito, Pernambuco, northeast Brazil. Caderno de Geografia 25(43): 179–191.
Sardeson F.W., 1908. Beginning and recession of Saint Anthony Falls. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 19(1): 29–52.
Scheingross J.S., Lamb M.P., 2016. Sediment transport through self-adjusting, bedrock-walled waterfall plunge pools. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 121(5): 939–963.
Scheingross J.S., Lamb M.P., 2017. A mechanistic model of waterfall plunge pool erosion into bedrock. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 122(11): 2079–2104.
Scheingross J.S., Lamb M.P., Fuller B.M., 2019. Self-formed bedrock waterfalls. Nature (5677747): 229–233.
Scheingross J.S., Lo D.Y., Lamb M.P., 2017. Self-formed waterfall plunge pools in homogeneous rock. Geophysical Research Letters 44(1): 200–208.
Schwarzbach M., 1967. Islandische Wasserfälle und eine genetische systematik der wasserfälle überhaupt. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie NF 11(4): 377–417.
Scott D.N., Wohl E.E., 2019. Bedrock fracture influences on geomorphic process and form across process domains and scales. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 44: 27–45.
Seidl M.A., Dietrich W.E., Kirchner J.W., 1994. Longitudinal profile development into bedrock: An analysis of Hawaiian channels. Journal of Geology 102(4): 457–474.
Seidl M.A., Weissel J.K., Pratson L.F., 1996. The kinematics and pattern of escarpment retreat across the rifted continental margin of SE Australia. Basin Research 8(3): 301–316.
Shelef E., Haviv I., Goren L., 2018. A potential link between waterfall recession rate and bedrock channel concavity. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 123(5): 905–923.
Shtober-Zisu N., Inbar M., Mor D., Jicha B.R., Singer B.S., 2018. Drainage development and incision rates in an Upper Pleistocene basalt-limestone boundary channel: The Sa’ar Stream, Golan Heights, Israel. Geomorphology 303: 417–433.
Springer G.S., Tooth S., Wohl E.E., 2006. Theoretical modeling of stream potholes based upon empirical observations from the Orange River, Republic of South Africa. Geomorphology 82(1–2): 160–176.
Stevaux J.C., Latrubesse E.M., 2009. Iguazu falls: a history of differential fluvial incision. In: P.Migoń (ed.), Geomorphological Landscapes of the World. Springer, Dordrecht: 101–109.
Tarr R.S., 1905. The gorges and waterfalls of central New York. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 374: 193– 212.
Tinkler K., 1987. Niagara Falls 1750–1845: the idea of a history and the history of an idea. Geomorphology 1(1): 69–85.
Tinkler K.J., Pengelly J.W., Parkins W.G., Asselin G., 1994. Postglacial recession of Niagara Falls in relation to the Great Lakes. Quaternary Research 42(1): 20–29.
Tongkul F., 2016. Waterfalls of Maliau Basin – Geoheritage of Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Geoheritage 8(3): 235–245.
Tooth S., 2015. The Augrabies Falls Region: A Fluvial Landscape Divided in Flow but Magnificent in Spectacle. In: S.Grab, J.Knight (eds.), Landscapes and Landforms of South Africa. Springer, Dordrecht: 65–73.
Travassos L.E.P., Castro de Oliveira R.I. 2016. Tufa deposits in the karst region of Montes Claros, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Acta Carsologica 45: 85–96.
Tricart J., 1965. Le Modelé des Régions Chaudes, Forêts et Savanes. SEDES, Paris.
Ukey M.S., Pardeshi R.G., 2019. Micromorphology and Textural Variations in the Ane Ghat Waterfall Tufa Deposits from Upland Deccan Traps and their Genesis. Journal of the Geological Society of India 94: 86–92.
Viles H.A., Goudie A.S., 1990. Tufas, travertines and allied carbonate deposits. Progress in Physical Geography 14(1): 19–41.
Viles H.A., Taylor M.P., Nicoll K., Neumann S., 2007. Facies evidence of hydroclimatic regime shifts in tufa depositional sequences from the arid Naukluft Mountains, Namibia. Sedimentary Geology 195(1–2): 39–53.
Von Engeln O.D., 1942. Geomorphology. Macmillan, New York.
Waltham T., 2010. Lake Missoula and the Scablands, Washington, USA. Geology Today 26(4): 152–158.
Waltham T., 2012. Yosemite—the incomparable valley. Geology Today 28(1): 31–38.
Wang Z., Cui P., Yu G.A., Zhang K., 2012. Stability of landslide dams and development of knickpoints. Environmental Earth Sciences 65(4): 1067–1080.
Weissel J.K., Seidl M.A., 1997. Influence of rock strength properties on escarpment retreat across passive continental margins. Geology 25(7): 631–634.
Wellington J.H. 1955. Southern Africa – a Geographic Study. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
WHC [World Heritage Centre], 2018. World heritage List. Online: whc.unesco.org/en/list/?search=waterfalls&id_sites=&id_states=&id_search_region=&id_ search_by_synergy_protection=&id_search_by_synergy_element=&search_yearinscribed=&themes=&-criteria_restrication=&id_keywords=&type=&media=&order=country&description= (accessed 20 August 2018).
Whipple K.X., Hancock G.S., Anderson R.S., 2000. River incision into bedrock: Mechanics and relative efficacy of plucking, abrasion, and cavitation. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America 112(3): 490–503.
Wobus C.W., Crosby B.T., Whipple K.X., 2006. Hanging valleys in fluvial systems: Controls on occurrence and implications for landscape evolution. Journal of Geophysical Research, Earth Surface 111 (F02017). DOI:10.1029/2005JF000406.
Wohl E.E., 2000. Substrate influences on step-pool sequences in the Christopher Creek drainage, Arizona. Journal of Geology 108(1): 121–129.
Wolman M.G., Giegengack R.F., 2008. The Nile River: geology, hydrology, hydraulic Society. In: A.Gupta (ed.), Large Rivers: Geomorphology and Management. Wiley, New York: 471–490.
Worcester P.G., 1939. A Textbook of Geomorphology. Van Nostrand, New York. World Waterfall Database, 2018.
World Waterfall Database. Online: www.worldwaterfalldatabase.com accessed 20 August 2018).
Wright J.S., 2000. Tufa accumulations in ephemeral streams: observations from the Kimberley, north-west Australia. Australian Geographer 31(3): 333–347.
Ye F.Y., Barriot J.P., Carretier S., 2013. Initiation and recession of the fluvial knickpoints of the Island of Tahiti French Polynesia). Geomorphology 186: 162–173.
Yoshida H., Hayakawa Y.S., Takanami S., Hikitsu A., Ohsaka S., Ishii R., 2017. Geomorphic reconstruction of formation and recession processes of waterfalls of the Kaminokawa river basin on Osumi Peninsula, southern Kyushu, Japan. Geographical Research 55(4): 424–437.
Young R.W., 1985. Waterfalls: form and process. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Suppl. 55: 81–95.
Young R.W., Wray R.A.L., Young A.R.M., 2009. Sandstone Landforms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Zhang D.D., Zhang Y., Zhu A., Cheng X., 2001. Physical mechanisms of river waterfall tufa travertine) formation. Journal of Sedimentary Research 71(1): 205–216.
Zhang H., Zhang P., Fan Q., 2011. Initiation and recession of the fluvial knickpoints: A case study from the Yalu River-Wangtian’e volcanic region, northeastern China. Science China Earth Sciences 54 1746. DOI:10.1007/s11430-011-4254-6.