Keywords
sexual minorities
LGBTQ
historical analysis of attitudinal changes
How to Cite
Abstract
Even though homosexuality and other sexual minorities have never been considered illegal by the Korean government, people identifying as non-heteronormative were and are still vastly ostracised. Furthermore, the LGBT community was and is still facing social stigmatism. What cultural conditions influenced the way non-heteronormative minorities are perceived by most South Korean society? How has the LGBT minority developed over the centuries? When did the attitudes of South Koreans change for the better? The following article covers the answers to the above-stated questions based on a particular query of texts related to the topic based on historiographic records. In the first section, the influence of the Confucian ideas of Three Fundamental Bonds and Five Constant Virtues (三綱五倫, 삼강오륜 [samgangoryun]) on the image of 'correct relationship' and the Taoist division of gender roles based on energy adversity (yin (陰, 음 [eum]) and yang (陽, 양 [yang])) will be explained. This will serve as a basis for understanding cultural opposition to same-sex relationships. The following subchapter consists of a chronological overview of the most important historical records regarding same-sex relationships. The third subchapter presents the sexual minority groups formed in the 1990s, such as Chodong Society (초동회 [chodonghoe]), Between Friends (친구사이 [chingu sai]) and Maeum 001 (마음001 [maeum gongongil]), which had the most significant impact on the development of the contemporary LGBT movement in South Korea. The last section presents current changes and problems that the South Korean LGBT society faces.
References
Adamczyk, Amy, and Yen-hsin Alice, Cheng. 2015. Explaining Attitudes About Homosexuality in Confucian and Non-Confucian Nations: Is There a Cultural Influence?. Social Science Research, vol. 51: 276–289. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2014.10.002
Arnold, Matthew David. 2016. Queer Korea: Identity, Tradition, and Activism. Master of Arts Dissertation. Duke University. https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/13472/Queer%20Korea%20Final%20Thesis_Arnoldpdf.pdf?sequence=3
Berry, Chris, and Martin, Fran. 2003. Syncretism and Synchronicity: Queer’n’Asian Cyberspace in 1990s Taiwan and Korea. In: Mobile Cultures: New Media in Queer Asia, ed. Chris Berry, 87–114. Durham: Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11sn3vc.7
Bicker, Laura. 2019. Gay in South Korea: ‚She said I don’t need a son like you’. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-49751410 (Accessed 25 Jan. 2023).
Chen, Pei Jean. 2020. Problematizing love: the intimate event and same-sex love in colonial Korea. In: Queer Korea, ed. Todd A. Henry, 117–145. Durham: Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478003366-005
Cho, John (Song Pae). 2020. The three faces of South Korea’s male homosexuality: pogal, iban, and neoliberal gay. In: Queer Korea, ed. Todd A. Henry, 263–294. Durham: Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478003366-010
Chung, Edward Y.J. 2015. Korean Confucianism: Tradition and Modernity. Seoul: The Academy of Korean Studies Press.
Das Wilhelm, Amara. 2004. Tritiya-Prakriti: People of the Third Sex: Understanding Homosexuality, Transgender Identity and Intersex Conditions Through Hinduism. Xlibris Corporation. E-book: ISBN: 9781450080576.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Li. Chinese Philosophy”. www.britannica.com/topic/li-Chinese-philosophy (Accessed 30 Mar. 2022).
Francoeur, Robert T. 1992. Sexuality and Spirituality: The Relevance of Eastern Traditions. Sex Information and Education Council of the U.S., 20 (4): 1–8.
Francoeur, Robert T., and Raymond J. Noonan (eds.). 2004. The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality. Bloomington: Continuum. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780199754700.001.0001
Ha, Shinae. 2020. Femininity under the wartime system and the symptomacity of female same-sex love. In: Queer Korea, ed. Todd A. Henry, 146–174. Durham: Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/9781478003366-006
Han, Heesok. 2004. Women’s Life During the Choson Dynasty. International Journal of Korean History, vol. 6(1):113–160.
Han, Hyunwoo. 2000. Hong Suk-Chun Comes out Some More with Mini-bio. The Chosun Ilbo. http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2000/12/26/2000122661301.html (Accessed. 25 Jan. 2023).
Helkama, Klaus. 2009. Moraalipsykologia. Helsinki: WS Bookwell Oy. Edita Publishing Oy.
Hilton, Anne. 2008. Out of the closet and onto the big screen: Portrayals of homosexuality in Korean cinema. Master of the Arts Dissertation, University of Columbia.
Human Rights Watch. 2019. South Korea: Military ‘Sodomy’ Law Violates Human Rights. https://www.hrw.org/news/2019/03/07/south-korea-military-sodomy-law-violates-rights (Accessed 22 Mar. 2022).
Human Rights Watch. 2021. ‘I Thought of Myself as Defective’. Neglecting the Rights of LGBT Youth in South Korean Schools, https://www.hrw.org/report/2021/09/14/i-thought-myself-defective/neglecting-rights-lgbt-youth-south-korean-schools (Accessed 22 Mar. 2022).
Human Rights Watch. 2021. World Report 2021: South Korea. www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/south-korea (Accessed. 22 Mar. 2022).
Human Rights Watch. 2022. South Korea. Events of 2022. https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2023/country-chapters/south-korea (Accessed. 25 Jan. 2023).
ILGA-Europe. 2020. Rainbow Europe 2020 / ILGA-Europe, https://ilga-europe.org/report/rainbow-europe-2020/
Ilyon. 2006. Samguk Yusa. Legends and History of the Three Kingdoms and Ancient Korea. Transl. by Taehung Ha and Grafton K. Mintz. Silk Pagoda. E-book: ISBN: 9781596543485.
Inglehart, R., C. Haerpfer, A. Moreno, C. Welzel, K. Kizilova, J. Diez-Medrano, M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin, and B. Puranen. (eds.). 2014. World Values Survey: Round One – Country-Pooled Datafile Version. https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV6.jsp. Madrid: JD Systems Institute.
Kim, Minah. 2022. Religious Governance as Collaboration for the Resolution of Disgust: The Case of Protestantism in South Korea. Religions, vol. 13, no. 11: 1097. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13111097
Kim, Sang-un (김상운). 2014. 고승과 소년의 사랑 묘사한 이규보 “뭐가 해로우랴” (Goseung-gwa sonyeon-ui sarang myosahan Lee Gyu-bo ‘Mweoga haerourya’). The Donga Ilbo. https://www.donga.com/news/Culture/article/all/20141218/68606425/1 (Accessed: 25 Jan. 2023).
Kim, Young-Gwan, and Sook-Ja, Hahn. 2006. Homosexuality in Ancient and Modern Korea. Culture, Health and Sexuality, vol. 8, no. 1: 59–65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050500159720
Knapp, Keith N. 2009. ”Three fundamental bonds and five constant virtues: Sāngāng wŭcháng”. China Connect U, https://chinaconnectu.com/wp-content/pdf/ThreeFundamentalBondsandFiveConstantVirtues.pdf (Accessed 27 Mar. 2022).
Kwon Kim, Hyun-young, and John (Song Pae), Cho. 2011. The Korean Gay and Lesbian Movement 1993 – 2008. From „identity” and „community” to „human rights”. In: South Korean Social Movements: From Democracy to Civil Society, eds. Giwook Shin and Paul Chang, 206–227. London: Routledge.
LeBlanc, Bruce. 2015. Envisioning Homosexuality within Daoism - The Orientation and Sexual Dimensions of Yin and Yang. International Journal of Behavioral Research & Psychology, 3 (8): 151–156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.19070/2332-3000-1500027
Lee, Peter H. 2013. Lives of Eminent Korean Monks: The Haedong Kosung Chon. Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center.
Lim, Hyun Sung, and McNown Johnson, Miriam. 2001.Korean Social Work Students’ Attitudes Toward Homosexuals. Journal of Social Work Education, 37(3): 545–554. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10437797.2001.10779073
Murray, Stephen O. 2002. Homosexualities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Naaranoja, Kata R. 2016. South Korean University Students’ Attitudes toward Homosexuality and LGBT Issues. Master of Arts Dissertation. University of Helsinki. https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/162883/Naaranoja_Kata_Pro%20gradu_2016.pdf
Oh, Hyeonggeun (오형근). 1996. 묘정 (Myojeong). In: 한국민족문화대백과사전 (Hangug Minjog Munhwa Daebaeggwa sajeon; Encyclopaedia of Korean Culture, https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0018885 (Accessed 27 Mar. 2022).
Parent, Mike C.; DeBlaere, Cirleen; Moradi, Bonnie (June 2013). Approaches to Research on Intersectionality: Perspectives on Gender, LGBT, and Racial/Ethnic Identities. Sex Roles, 68 (11–12): 639–645. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0283-2
Rayor, Diane, and Andre, Lardinois. 2014. Sappho: A New Translation of the Complete Works. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rurarz, Joanna P. 2009. Historia Korei. Warszawa: Dialog.
Rutt, Richard. 1961. The Flower Boys of Silla (Hwarang): Notes on the Resources. Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society vol. XXXVIII. Seoul: Korea Branch, Royal Asiatic Society. http://anthony.sogang.ac.kr/transactions/VOL38/KORS0749D_VOL38.pdf (Accessed: 25 Jan. 2023).
Singer, Colin, Kim, Pilho. 2011. Three periods of Korean queer cinema: Invisible, Camouflage, and Blockbuster. Acta Koreana, 14(1): 117–136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18399/acta.2011.14.1.005
SOGILAW. 2017. 한국 LGBTI 인권현황 2016. 한국어-영어 합본 발간 (Hangug LBGTI ingweon hyeonhwang 2016. Hangugeo-yeongeo habbon balgan; Human Rights Situation of LGBTI in South Korea 2016). 22 July 2017, https://sogilaw.org/70?category=588043 (Accessed 27 Mar. 2022).
Stonewall, 2018. Stonewall Global Workplace Briefings 2018: South Korea. stonewall.org.uk. https://www.stonewall.org.uk/system/files/south_korea_global_workplace_briefing_2018.pdf (Accessed 22 Mar. 2022).
Suh, Dongjin. 2001. Mapping the Vicissitudes of Homosexual Identities in South Korea. Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 40, no. 3/4: 65–78. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v40n03_04
Thacker, Todd Cameron. 2013. Wu Chang. In: The Encyclopedia of Confucianism, ed. Xinzhong Yao, 660. Routledge: Abingdon.
Thoreson, Ryan. 2022. South Korean Court Limits Military ‘Sodomy’ Law. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/25/south-korean-court-limits-military-sodomy-law (Accessed. 25 Jan. 2023).
Todd, Henry A. 2020. Introduction: Queer Korea: Toward a Field of Engagement. In: Queer Korea, ed. Todd, A. Henry, 1–52. Durham: Duke University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv11hpn09.4
Williams, Sophie. 2023. The South Korean drag queen raising LGBT awareness. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-64102833 (Accessed. Jan 25. 2023).
Woo, Hyunjoo. 2017. The stories of South Korean religious lesbians: The voices of the women struggling with ceaseless conflicts. Master of Arts Dissertation. Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia. https://library2.smu.ca/bitstream/handle/01/27084/Woo_Hyunjoo_MASTERS_2017.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Yi, Huso. 2004. Homoerotic, Homosexual, and Bisexual Behaviours. In: The Continuum Complete International Encyclopedia of Sexuality, eds. Francoeur, Robert T., and Raymond, J., Noonan, 947–949. Bloomington: Continuum.
Youn, Gahyun. 1996. „Do Human Rights Exist for Korean Gay Men and Lesbians?” Stigma, Human Rights, and Sexual Orientation – International Perspective. Symposium at the Annual Meeting of the American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada August 9-13, 1996. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED400505.pdf
Youn, Gahyun. 2017. Attitudinal Changes Toward Homosexuality During the Past Two Decades (1994-2014) in Korea. Korea Journal of Homosexuality, vol. 65, no. 2: 100–116. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2017.1310512
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Aleksandra Müller
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en
When submitting a paper the author agrees to the following publishing agreement and processing personal data.
PUBLICATION AGREEMENT, COPYRIGHT LICENSE, PERSONAL DATA PROCESSING CONSENT
This is a publication agreement and copyright license (“Agreement”) regarding a written manuscript currently submitted via Pressto Platform
(“Article”) to be published in International Journal of Korean Humanities and Social Sciences (“Journal”).
The parties to this Agreement are:
the Author or Authors of the submitted article (individually, or if more than one author, collectively, “Author”) and International Journal of Korean Humanities and Social Sciences (“Publisher”), address al. Niepodległości 4, 61-874 Poznań, represented by its editor in chief Oh Kyong-Geun.
- 1. LICENSE OF COPYRIGHT
- a) The Author and the Publisher agree that the Author grants a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which is incorporated herein by reference and is further specified at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en copyright license in the Article to the general public.
- b) The Author grants to the Publisher a royalty-free, worldwide nonexclusive license to publish, reproduce, display, distribute, translate and use the Article in any form, either separately or as part of a collective work, including but not limited to a nonexclusive license to publish the Article in an issue of the Journal, copy and distribute individual reprints of the Article, authorize reproduction of the entire Article in another publication, and authorize reproduction and distribution of the Article or an abstract thereof by means of computerized retrieval systems (such as Westlaw, Lexis and SSRN). The Author retains ownership of all rights under copyright in the Article, and all rights not expressly granted in this Agreement.
- c) The Author grants to the Publisher the power to assign, sublicense or otherwise transfer any and all licenses expressly granted to the Publisher under this Agreement.
- d) Republication. The Author agrees to require that the Publisher be given credit as the original publisher in any republication of the Article authorized by the Author. If the Publisher authorizes any other party to republish the Article under the terms of paragraphs 1c and 1 of this Agreement, the Publisher shall require such party to ensure that the Author is credited as the Author.
- 2. EDITING OF THE ARTICLE
- a) The Author agrees that the Publisher may edit the Article as suitable for publication in the Journal. To the extent that the Publisher’s edits amount to copyrightable works of authorship, the Publisher hereby assigns all right, title, and interest in such edits to the Author.
- 3. WARRANTIES
- a) The Author represents and warrants that to the best of the Author’s knowledge the Article does not defame any person, does not invade the privacy of any person, and does not in any other manner infringe upon the rights of any person. The Author agrees to indemnify and hold harmless the Publisher against all such claims.
- b) The Author represents and warrants that the Author has full power and authority to enter into this Agreement and to grant the licenses granted in this Agreement.
- c) The Author represents and warrants that the Article furnished to the Publisher has not been published previously. For purposes of this paragraph, making a copy of the Article accessible over the Internet, including, but not limited to, posting the Article to a database accessible over the Internet, does not constitute prior publication so long as the as such copy indicates that the Article is not in final form, such as by designating such copy to be a “draft,” a “working paper,” or “work-in-progress”. The Author agrees to hold harmless the Publisher, its licensees and distributees, from any claim, action, or proceeding alleging facts that constitute a breach of any warranty enumerated in this paragraph.
- 4. TERM
- a) The agreement was concluded for an unspecified time.
- 5. PAYMENT
- a) The Author agrees and acknowledges that the Author will receive no payment from the Publisher for use of the Article or the licenses granted in this Agreement.
- b) The Publisher agrees and acknowledges that the Publisher will not receive any payment from the Author for publication by the Publisher.
- 6. ENTIRE AGREEMENT
- a) This Agreement supersedes any and all other agreements, either oral or in writing, between the Author and the Publisher with respect to the subject of this Agreement. This Agreement contains all of the warranties and agreements between the parties with respect to the Article, and each party acknowledges that no representations, inducements, promises, or agreements have been made by or on behalf of any party except those warranties and agreements embodied in this Agreement.
- b) In all cases not regulated by this Agreement, legal provisions of Polish Copyright Act and Polish Civil Code shall apply.
- c) Any disputes arising from the enforcement of obligations connected with this Agreement shall be resolved by a court competent for the headquarters of the Publisher.
- d) Any amendments or additions to the Agreement must be made in writing and signed by authorised representative of both parties, otherwise being ineffective.
- e) This Agreement is signed electronically and the submission of the article via the PRESSto platform is considered as the conclusion of the Agreement by the Author and the Publisher.
- f) Clause for consent to the processing of personal data - general
- g) The Author shall give his or her consent to the processing of their personal data in accordance with the Act of 10 May 2018 on the protection of personal data and Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 April 2016 on the protection of persons physical in connection with the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data, and repealing Directive 95/46 / EC (General Data Protection Regulation) for the purpose and in connection with making publications available on the PRESSto scientific journals platform, guaranteeing the security of services rendered, and improving them.
I HAVE READ AND AGREE FULLY WITH THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT.
The Author The Publisher