Home-based Care Model, Values and Entrepreneurial Aspirations of Women Caregivers, and Gender Equality in Bangladesh
Journal cover Journal of Gender and Power, volume 22, no. 2, year 2024
PDF

Keywords

care model
gender equality
women’s entrepreneurial aspirations

How to Cite

Mariam, E., Ahmed, N., Hossain, N., Khatun, R., Begum, T., & Tasnim, S. (2024). Home-based Care Model, Values and Entrepreneurial Aspirations of Women Caregivers, and Gender Equality in Bangladesh. Journal of Gender and Power, 22(2), 55–87. https://doi.org/10.14746/jpg.2024.22.2.11

Abstract

Despite the increased visibility of the important role women play in entrepreneurship; socially constructed stereotypic views continue to reproduce gender discrimination in terms of opportunities, resources, and rewards; and lower women’s self-confidence; consequently, women become less entrepreneurial compared to men. Given that the process of undoing negative social constructions varies widely according to culture and interventions, to better explain the intervention process that works to promote gender equality and supports unique aspects of women’s values in specific cultural settings requires research enquiry. This research explores how a care model provision fosters gender equality and women’s entrepreneurial aspirations, drawn from observation of ten para-counselors who have shared everyday lives and views of the children and adults of the care model. The care model has great potential to promote gender equality as the model opens up opportunities for women having disadvantaged backgrounds to access education capital that supports women to reach their fullest human potential, realize dignity, and contribute to and benefit from economic, social, cultural, and structural development. Furthermore, the values of these women opened up opportunities to fulfill ideological deficiencies of the girls’ socialization process at an early age, help girls from low socio-economic backgrounds to experience early learning and development crucial for reaching their fullest potentials, alter socially constructed male-female differences, and emancipate women and girls from patriarchal oppression. Women caregivers’ such values and increased personal abilities had a noticeable impact on these women’s aspirations to be entrepreneurs, which differ from the constraints placed by cultural stereotypes and prejudices on their gender roles. 

https://doi.org/10.14746/jpg.2024.22.2.11
PDF

References

ANDERSON, H. S. (2016) Feminisms in Canadian educational contexts: A literature review. Canadian Journal for New Scholars in Education, 7(2), pp. 37–46

ANDERSON, L. C. et al. (2021) Economic benefits of empowering women in agriculture: assumptions and evidence. The Journal of Development Studies, 57(2), pp. 193–208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2020.1769071

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2022) Women and men in Bangladesh: facts and figures 2022. Ministry of Planning: Government of Bangladesh.

BESNIER, E. (2023) Women’s political empowerment and child health in the sustainable development era: A global empirical analysis (1990–2016). Global Public Health, 18(1), pp. 1–24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1849348

BESNIER, E. et al. (2024) Exploring economic empowerment and gender issues in Lesotho’s Child Grants Programme: a qualitative study. Health Policy and Planning, 39, pp. 95–117 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czad009

BLASBERG, A. et al. (2019) A conceptual model for quality in home-based child care. Child Care and Early Education Policy and Research Analysis, OPRE Report. https://acf.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/cceepra_hbcc_conceptual_model_508b.pdf

BLIZNASHKA, L. et al. (2021) Associations between women’s empowerment and child development, growth, and nurturing care practices in sub-Saharan Africa: A cross-sectional analysis of demographic and health survey data. PLoS Medicine, 18(9), pp. 1–30 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1003781

BULLOUGH, A. et al. (2022) Women’s entrepreneurship and culture: gender role expectations and identities, societal culture, and the entrepreneurial environment. Small Business Economics, 58, pp. 985–996 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-020-00429-6

CHERNEY, I. D. and DEMPSEY, J. (2010) Young children’s classification, stereotyping and play behavior for gender neutral and ambiguous toys. Educational Psychology, 30(6), pp. 651–669 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.498416

Child Day Care Center Act 2021 (2021) Bangladesh Gazette, Bangladesh National Parliament, pp. 9599–9600

CLARK, S. et al. (2017) Can subsidized early child care promote women’s employment? Evidence from a slum settlement in Africa. GrOW Working Paper Series: Institute for the Study of International Development

CONNOLLY, F. F., GOOSSEN, M. and HJERM, M. (2020) Does gender equality cause gender differences in values? Reassessing the gender-equality-personality paradox. Sex Roles, 83, pp. 101–113 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-019-01097-x

DAVIS, J. T. M. and HINES, M. (2020) How large are gender differences in toy preferences? A systematic review and meta-analysis of toy-preference research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49, pp. 373–394 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-019-01624-7

EVANS, D. K., AKMAL, M. and JAKIELA, P. (2020) Gender gaps in education: The long view. Working Paper 523. Center for Global Development

FOLBRE, N. (2006) Measuring care: Gender, empowerment, and the care economy. Journal of Human Development, 7(2), pp. 183–199 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600768512

FRIEDMAN, M., METELERKAMP, J. and POSEL, R. (1987) What is feminism? And what kind of feminist am I? Agenda: Empowering Women for Gender Equity, 1, pp. 3–24 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10130950.1987.9674671

GALLEGO, R. and MAESTRIPIERI, L. (2022) Women’s empowerment and social innovation in childcare: the case of Barcelona, Spain. European Societies DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616696.2022.2092641

GALLOWAY, L., KAPASI, I. and SANG, K. (2015) Entrepreneurship, leadership, and the value of feminist approaches to understanding them. Journal of Small Business Management, 53(3), pp. 683–692 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12178

Gender Empowerment Wikipedia. [Online] Available at: https://tinyurl.com/smkkn3dc [Accessed: 10 September 2025].

GRANTHAM, K. and SOMJI, A. (2022) Childcare solutions for women micro and small enterprises. Donor Committee for Enterprise Development (DCED)

GUHA, R. (2024) Informal discussion with the Sr. Curriculum Specialist, child care model of BRAC IED

GUPTA, V. K. et al. (2009) The role of gender stereotypes in perceptions of entrepreneurs and intentions to become an entrepreneur. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, pp. 397–417 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6520.2009.00296.x

HARDING, S. (1986) The Science Question in Feminism. Cornell University Press

HECKERT, J., OLNEY, D. and RUEL, M. (2019) Is women’s empowerment a pathway to improving child nutrition outcomes in a nutrition-sensitive agriculture program? Evidence from a randomized controlled trial in Burkina Faso. Social Science & Medicine DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.05.016

HELMERHORST, K. O. W. et al. (2023) Quality of caregiver–child interactions in early child care centers in Bangladesh: measurement and training. Early Education and Development, 34(1), pp. 208–227 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1988035

HUIS, M. A. et al. (2017) A Three-Dimensional Model of Women’s Empowerment: Implications in the Field of Microfinance and Future Directions. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, pp. 1–14 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01678

ISLAM, S. and KHAN, N. A. (2015) Child day care center in Bangladesh: Problems and prospects. International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Research (IJSER), 3(3), pp. 66–72 DOI: https://doi.org/10.70729/IJSER158

ISLAM, T. M. T. and KOTIKULA, A. (2023) Home-based work decisions among Bangladeshi women. Asian Development Review, 40(1), pp. 79–111 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S0116110523500026

JAYSAWAL, N. and SAHA, S. (2023) Role of education in women empowerment. International Journal of Applied Research, 9(4), pp. 8–13 DOI: https://doi.org/10.22271/allresearch.2023.v9.i4a.10710

KARIMOV, E. Y. and GOKCAY, G. (2025) The scope of nurturing care in early childhood and its applications in our country. Namik Kemal Medical Journal, 13(2), pp. 193–199 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4274/nkmj.galenos.2025.38233

KHANOM, F. (2023) Transforming childcare into care model. Presentation at BRAC IED. [Online] Available at: https://bracied.com/transforming-childcare-into-care-model-who-has-conducted/ [Accessed: 10 September 2025]

KHATTAK, G. S. (2011) Feminism in education: Historical and contemporary issues of gender inequality in higher education. Occasional Papers in Education & Lifelong Learning: An International Journal, 5(1–2), pp. 67–81

KOTIKULA, A., HILL, R. and RAZA, A. W. (2019) What works for working women? Understanding female labor force participation in urban Bangladesh. The World Bank DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/32535

LEHRER, S. J., LEMAY, L. and BIGRAS, N. (2015) Parental perceptions of child care quality in centre-based and home-based settings: associations with external quality ratings. IJEC DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-015-0147-8

LEUNING, J. C. and NGAVIRUE, B. (1995) Safe child care and women’s empowerment in the developing world. Health Care for Women International, 16(6), pp. 537–550 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07399339509516208

LOOZE, M. E. D. et al. (2018) The happiest kids on earth. Gender equality and adolescent life satisfaction in Europe and North America. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 47, pp. 1073–1085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-017-0756-7

LUBNA, N. A. and PARVIN, M. (2017) Women entrepreneurship development in Bangladesh: A descriptive study on challenges and prospects. Society & Change, XI(4), pp. 33–44

MARIAM, E. (2023) Remembering Rokia Afzal Rahman: The fearless spirit. Memorial lecture at Radisson Blu Water Garden Hotel, Dhaka

MARIAM, E. (2024) Using play to help the world’s children to heal, learn and thrive: David Whitebread Memorial Lecture 2024 https://www.pedalhub.net/resource-library/resource/item/using-play-to-help-the-worlds-children-to-heal-learn-and-thrive-david-whitebread-memorial-lecture-2024/

MARIAM, E., AHMAD, J. and SARWAR, S. S. (2021) BRAC humanitarian Play Lab model: Promoting healing, learning and development for displaced Rohingya children. Journal on Education in Emergencies, 7(1), pp. 133–149 DOI: https://doi.org/10.33682/u72g-v5me

MARTÍNEZ, U. X. et al. (2017) Exploring the conceptualization and research of empowerment in the field of youth. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(4), pp. 405–418 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2016.1209120

MCCRACKEN, K. et al. (2015) Empowering women and girls through education. European Union

MOUSSIÉ, R. (2021) Childcare services in cities: challenges and emerging solutions for women informal workers and their children. Environment and Urbanization, 33(1), pp. 117–130 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956247820987096

MRIDHA, R. (2023) Alternative care for children of working women in nuclear families: A study on two metropolitan cities of Bangladesh. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 4(9), pp. 67–74 DOI: https://doi.org/10.55248/gengpi.4.923.52234

NANDI, A. et al. (2020) Access to affordable daycare and women’s economic opportunities: evidence from a cluster randomized intervention in India. Journal of Development Effectiveness, pp. 1–22 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/du3xg

NORA, L. A. et al. (2021) Women’s participation, constraints, and opportunities for trade in Bangladesh (English). SARTFP Gender Platform Knowledge Series: World Bank Group

OKELO, K. et al. (2022) Evaluating the effectiveness of the Kidogo model in empowering women and strengthening their capacities to engage in paid labor opportunities through the provision of quality childcare: a study protocol for an exploratory study in Nakuru County, Kenya. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9(237), pp. 1–7 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01260-y

ORSER, B., ELLIOTT, C. and LECK, J. (2013) Entrepreneurial feminists: perspectives about opportunity recognition and governance. Journal of Business Ethics, 115, pp. 241–257 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1391-6

Play Lab Research Brief – Bangladesh. (2021)

PRINCE-GIBSON, E. and SCHWARTZ, H. S. (1998) Value priorities and gender. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61(1), pp. 49–67 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2787057

RAHMAN, T. et al. (2022) Raising the quality of child caregiving in Bangladesh. The World Bank DOI: https://doi.org/10.1596/37093

REVENGA, A. and SHETTY, S. (2012) Empowering Women is Smart Economics. Finance and Development, pp. 40–43

RHEE, O., KIM et al. (2008) Developing models to integrate early childhood education and childcare in Korea. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 2(1), pp. 53–66 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/2288-6729-2-1-53

ROWLAND, J. (1995) Empowerment examined. Development in Practice, 5(2), pp. 101–107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0961452951000157074

ROWLANDS, J. (1997) Questioning Empowerment. Oxfam Print Unit DOI: https://doi.org/10.3362/9780855988364

RUBIO-BAÑÓN, A. and ESTEBAN-LLORET, N. (2016) Cultural factors and gender role in female entrepreneurship. SUMA DE NEGOCIOS, 7, pp. 9–16 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sumneg.2015.12.002

SARFARAZ, L., FAGHIH, N. and MAJD, A. A. (2014) The relationship between women entrepreneurship and gender equality. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 2(6), pp. 1–11 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2251-7316-2-6

SHARIF, S. (2016) Rural mothers’ perceptions of play in children’s learning and development in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Educational Journal, pp. 39–50

SLUITER, R. M. V., FEKKES, M. and FUKKINK, R. G. (2023) Comparing center-based with home-based child care: type of care moderates the association between process quality and child functioning. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62, pp. 102–114 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.07.017

SMET, D. S. and BOROS, S. (2021) Revisiting women empowerment through a cultural lens: an in-depth analysis of empowerment methodologies in horticulture in rural Ethiopia. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, pp. 1–15 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.536656

SOARES, M. F. et al. (2015) Individual and collective empowerment and associated factors among Brazilian adults: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health, 15, p. 775 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-2113-7

STARK, E. and FLITCRAFT, H. A. (1988) Women and children at risk: A feminist perspective on child abuse. International Journal on Health Services, 18(1), pp. 97–118 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2190/3K8F-KDWD-QYXK-2AX5

STEFANI, S. and PRATI, G. (2021) Are dimensions of gender inequality uniformly associated with human values? Europe’s Journal of Psychology, 17(2), pp. 92–102 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.2261

TABASSUM, N. and NAYAK, S. B. (2021) Gender stereotypes and their impact on women’s career progressions from a managerial perspective. IIM Kozhikode Society & Management Review, 10(2), pp. 192–208 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2277975220975513

THILAKOUN, K., REINHARZ, D. and KOUNNAVONG, S. (2023) The concepts of women’s empowerment, specially mothers of young children in child malnutrition programs in Luangprabang Province, Lao People’s Democratic Republic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20, pp. 1–18 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20176662

TODD, B. K., BARRY, J. A. and THOMMESSEN, S. A. O. (2016) Preferences for ‘gender-typed’ toys in boys and girls aged 9–32 months: young children’s ‘gender-typed’ toy preferences. Infant and Child Development DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/icd.1986

TONYANA, A. H., PAULSELL, D. and SHIVERS, M. E. (2017) Understanding and incorporating home-based child care into early education and development systems. Early Education and Development, 28(6), pp. 633–639 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2017.1324243

TURNER, G. S. and MASCHI, M. T. (2014) Feminist and empowerment theory and social work practice. Journal of Social Work Practice: Psychotherapeutic Approaches in Health, Welfare and the Community, pp. 1–12

UN Women (2018) Women and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

UN Women (2024) Accelerating the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls by addressing poverty and strengthening institutions and financing with a gender perspective

UNICEF (2015) Analysis of the Situation of Children and Women in Bangladesh 2015. UNICEF

UNICEF (2017) Gender Equality: Glossary of Terms and Concepts. UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia

UNTERHALTER, E. and HOWELL, C. (2019) Achieving gender equality in and through education: a knowledge and innovation exchange (KIX) discussion paper. Global Partnership for Education

VECKALNE, R. and TAMBOVCEVA, T. (2023) The importance of gender equality in promoting entrepreneurship and innovation. Marketing and Management of Innovations, 1, pp. 158–168 DOI: https://doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2023.1-14

YADAV, V. and UNNI, J. (2016) Women entrepreneurship: research review and future directions. Journal of Global Entrepreneurship Research, 6(12), pp. 1–18 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40497-016-0055-x