Abstrakt
The debate surrounding the topic of Artificial Intelligence (ai), and its different meanings, seems to be ever-growing. This paper aims to deconstruct the seemingly problematic nature of the ai debate, revealing layers of ambiguity and misperceptions that contribute to a pseudo-problematic narrative. Through a review of existing literature, ethical frameworks, and public discourse, this essay identifies key areas where misconceptions, hyperbole, and exaggerated fears have overshadowed the genuine concerns associated with ai development and deployment. To identify these issues I propose three general criteria that are based on Popper’s and Ayer’s work and adjusted to my needs. The subsequent sections categorize ai issues into ontological, methodological, and logical-grammatical problems, aligning with Cackowski’s typology. In addition, I introduce «» signs to distinguish behavioural descriptions from cognitive states, aiming to maintain clarity between external evidence and internal agent states. My conclusion is quite simple: the ai debate should be thoroughly revised, and we, as scholars, should define the concepts that lie at the bottom of ai by creating a universal terminology and agreeing upon it. This will give us the opportunity to conduct our debates reasonably and understandably for both scholars and the popular public.
Bibliografia
Ayer, A.J. (1952). Language, Truth, and Logic. New York: Dover Publications.
Bird, A. (2022). Thomas Kuhn. In: E.N. Zalta (ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2022 Edition), https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/thomas-kuhn/ (accessed on 28.02.2024).
Block, N. (1995). The Mind as the Software of the Brain. In: D.N. Osherson et al. (eds.), An Invitation to Cognitive Science (pp. 377–425), 2nd ed., vol. 3. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Bostrom, N. (1998). How Long Before Superintelligence. International Journal of Futures Studies, 2, 12–17.
Bostrom, N. (2014). Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bringsjord, S. (1994). Lady Lovelace Had It Right: Computers Originate Nothing. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(17), 532–533. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00035718
Cackowski, Z. (1964). Problemy i pseudoproblemy. Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza.
Čaplinskas, A. (1998). AI Paradigms. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 9, 493–502. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008880017722
Chalmers, D.J. (1995). Facing Up to the Problem of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 2(3), 200–219.
Chalmers, D.J. (1996). The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dennett, D. (1987). The Intentional Stance. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Descartes, R. (1984). Meditations on first philosophy. In: J. Cottingham et al., (Eds.), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, vol. II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Doran, D., Schulz, S., Besold, T.R. (2017). What Does Explainable AI Really Mean? A New Conceptualization of Perspectives. arXiv preprint arXiv:1710.00794
Edison, S.W., Geissler, G.L. (2003). Measuring Attitudes Towards General Technology: Antecedents, Hypotheses and Scale Development. Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 12, 137–156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jt.5740104
Epley, N., Waytz, A., Cacioppo, J.T. (2007). On Seeing Human: A Three-Factor Theory of Anthropomorphism. Psychological Review, 114(4), 864–886. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.864
Floridi, L., Sanders, J.W. (2004). On the Morality of Artificial Agents. Minds and Machines, 14, 349–379. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/B:MIND.0000035461.63578.9d
French, R.M. (1990). Subcognition and the Limits of the Turing Test. Mind, 99(393), 53–65. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/XCIX.393.53
Gardner, H.E. (2011). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.
Garvey, C., Maskal, C. (2020). Sentiment Analysis of the News Media on Artificial Intelligence Does Not Support Claims of Negative Bias Against Artificial Intelligence. Omics: a Journal of Integrative Biology, 24(5), 286–299. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1089/omi.2019.0078
Gottfredson, L.S. (1997). Mainstream Science on Intelligence: An editorial with 52 signatories, history, and bibliography. Intelligence, 24: 13–23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(97)90011-8
Hartman, D.E. (2009). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale IV (Wais Iv): Return of the Gold Standard. Applied Neuropsychology, 1(16), 85–87. PMID: 19205953. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09084280802644466
Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J., Suitner, C. (2008). Subhuman, Inhuman, and Superhuman: Contrasting Humans With Nonhumans in Three Cultures. Social Cognition, 2(26): 248–258. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.2008.26.2.248
Hornowska, E. (2019). Testy psychologiczne: teoria i praktyka. Warszawa: Scholar.
Howard, R.W. (1999). Intelligence and Cultural Environment. Intelligence, 1(27), 47–59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-2896(99)00018-5
Kerschner, C., Ehlers, M.-H. (2016). A Framework of Attitudes Towards Technology in Theory and Practice. Ecological Economics, 126, 139–151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.02.010
Lichtenberger, E.O., Kaufman, A.S. (2012). Essentials of WAIS-IV Assessment, vol. 96. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Lucas, J.R. (1961). Minds, Machines and Gödel. Philosophy, 36(137), 112–127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031819100057983
Metz, C. (2016). Self-driving Cars Will Teach Themselves To Save Lives – But Also Take Them. https://www.wired.com/2016/06/self-driving-cars-will-power-kill-wont-conscience/ (accessed on 21.12.2023).
Metzinger, T. (2009). The Ego Tunnel: The Science of The Mind and the Myth of the Self. New York: Basic Books (AZ).
Minsky, M., McCarthy, J., Shannon, C., Rochester, N. (1956). A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project On Artificial Intelligence. https://www-formal. stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html (accessed on 6.12.2023).
Monett, D. (2021). The I in AI (or why there is still none). Keynote at the Webinar “El Futuro Digital de las Infraestructuras y la Sociedad”, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Spain, June 9, 2021. https://www.slideshare.net/dmonett/monett-2021-uclm (accessed on 28.02.2024).
Monett, D., Hoge, L., Lewis, C.W. (2019). Cognitive Biases Undermine Consensus On Definitions of Intelligence And Limit Understanding. In LaCATODA/BtG@IJCAI, pp. 52–59.
Monett, D., Lampe, N., Ehrlicher-Schmidt, M., Bewer, N. (2020). Intelligence Catalog-guided Tracking of the Evolution of (Machine) Intelligence: Preliminary Results. In NL4AI@ AI* IA, pp. 118–129.
Monett, D., Lewis, C.W. (2018). Getting Clarity by Defining Artificial Intelligence – A Survey. In: V.C., Müller (ed.), Philosophy and Theory of Artificial Intelligence 2017, (pp. 212–214). Cham: Springer International Publishing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-96448-5_21
Monett, D., Lewis, C.W. (2020a). Definitional Foundations for Intelligent Systems, part i: Quality Criteria for Definitions of Intelligence, p. 73.
Monett, D., Lewis, C.W. (2020b). Definitional Foundations for Intelligent Systems, part ii: Constructing a Definition and Examples, p. 81. Mancha, Spain, June 9th, 2021. https://www.slideshare.net/dmonett/monett-2021-uclm (accessed on 28.02.2024).
Musgrave, A., Pigden, C. (2023). Imre Lakatos. In: E.N. Zalta, U. Nodelman (Eds.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2023 ed.). https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2023/entries/lakatos/ (accessed on 28.02.2024).
Münch, D. (1990). Minds, Brains and Cognitive Science. In: A. Burkhardt (Ed.), Speech Acts, Meaning and Intentions: Critical Approaches to the Philosophy of John R. Searle (pp. 367–390). Berlin, New York: De Gruyter. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110859485.367
Newman, A.H., Turing, A.M., Jefferson, G., Braithwaite, R.B. (1952). Can Automatic Calculating Machines Be Said to Think? https://turingarchive.kings.cam.ac.uk/publications-lectures-and-talks-amtb/amt-b-6. Broadcast discussion transmitted on BBC (14 and 23 Jan. 1952), The Turing Digital Archive (accessed on 10.01.2024).
Penrose, R., Mermin, N.D. (1989). The Emperor’s New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds, And The Laws Of Physics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198519737.001.0001
Pinker, S. (2003). How the Mind Works. [Kindle e-book] Penguin Books Ltd.
Popper, K. (1935). The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London: Routledge.
Schmelzer, R. (2019). What Happens When Self-Driving Cars Kill People? https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognitiveworld/2019/09/26/what-happens-with-self-driving-cars-kill-people/ (accessed on 21.12.2023).
Searle, J.R. (1980). Minds, Brains, and Programs. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 3(3), 417–424. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X00005756
Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sternberg, R.J. (2007). Intelligence and Culture. In S. Kitayama, D. Cohen (eds), Handbook of Cultural Psychology (547–568). New York: The Guilford Press.
Sullins, J.P. (2011). When is a Robot a Moral Agent. Machine Ethics, 6, 151–161. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511978036.013
Szumakowicz, E. (2000). Sztuczna inteligencja – problem czy pseudoproblem. In: E. Szumakowicz (ed.), Granice sztucznej inteligencji: eseje i studia (pp. 11–42). Kraków: Wydawnictwo Politechniki Krakowskiej.
Tononi, G. (2008). Consciousness as Integrated Information: A Provisional Manifesto. The Biological Bulletin, 3(215), 216–242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/25470707
Turing, A.M. (1950). Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind, LIX(236), 443–455. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433
Wang, P. (2008). What do You Mean by “AI”? AGI, 171, 362–373.
Wang, P. (2019). On Defining Artificial Intelligence. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence, 2(10), 1–37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/jagi-2019-0002
Wittgenstein, L. (1921). Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung. Annalen der Naturphilosophie, 14, 185–262.
Wollowski, M., Selkowitz, R., Brown, L., Goel, A., Luger, G., Marshall, J., Neel, A., Neller, T., Norvig, P. (2016). A Survey of Current Practice and Teaching of AI. Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1(30), 4119–4124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v30i1.9857
Licencja
Prawa autorskie (c) 2024 Łukasz Abramowicz

Utwór dostępny jest na licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowe.
1. W momencie złożenia pracy celem rozpoczęcia postępowania w sprawie publikacji, Licencjodawca, zwany dalej Autorem, akceptuje wszystkie zasady umieszczone na stronie internetowej czasopisma “Człowiek i Społeczeństwo”, udzielając Licencjobiorcy, zwanego dalej Wydawcą, niewyłącznej i nieodpłatnej licencji na korzystanie z Utworu. Licencja zakłada tym samym brak ograniczeń terytorialnych, czasowych oraz ilościowych na następujących polach eksploatacji (art. 50 ustawy z dnia 4 lutego 1994 r. o prawie autorskim i prawach pokrewnych):
a. utrwalanie Utworu;
b. zwielokrotnienie Utworu drukiem i w wersji cyfrowej;
c. wprowadzenie do obrotu, użyczenie lub najem oryginału/zwielokrotnionych egzemplarzy Utworu;
d. publiczne wykonanie, wystawienie, wyświetlenie, odtworzenie oraz nadawanie i reemitowanie, a także publiczne udostępnianie Utworu w taki sposób, aby każdy mógł mieć do niego dostęp w miejscu i w czasie przez siebie wybranym;
e. włączenie Utworu w skład utworu zbiorowego;
f. wprowadzenie Utworu w postaci elektronicznej na platformy elektroniczne lub inne wprowadzenie Utworu w postaci elektronicznej do Internetu, Intranetu, Extranetu lub innej sieci;
g. rozpowszechnianie Utworu w wersji elektronicznej w Internecie, Intranecie, Extranecie lub innej sieci, w pracy zbiorowej, a także samodzielnie w formule Open Access w oparciu o licencję Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowa Licencja Publiczna (CC BY 4.0), a także inną wersję językową tej licencji, lub którąkolwiek późniejszą wersję tej licencji.
2. Założenia licencji Creative Commons Uznanie autorstwa 4.0 Międzynarodowa Licencja Publiczna (CC BY 4.0), udzielają Wydawcy upoważnienia do kopiowania, zmieniania, rozprowadzania, przedstawiania i wykonywania Utworu jedynie pod warunkiem uznania autorstwa.
3. Wraz z dostarczeniem Utworu, Autor zobowiązuje się do wypełnienia, podpisania oraz odesłania skanu umowy