Keywords
XIX-XX centuries
power
leadership
politicians
culture
political culture
elites
despotism
autocratism
society
How to Cite
Abstract
The aim of the paper is to analyze the types and determinants of political leadership in the Balkans. Were these types the copies of the Ottoman model of power, did they reflect native models or were some other models adapted? The theoretical part of the article is based on the cultural theory of leadership (A. Wildavski). Wildavski formulates the thesis that historical and cultural determinants allow us to assume the existence of political leadership in the Balkans, namely, all forms of strong leadership: despotic, absolutist, autocratic and dictatorial (Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro). Our considerations concern the period from the national uprisings in the Balkans in the 19th c. until the middle of the 20th c., so till the times when the Ottoman heritage could influence the political and social life in the collective memory. The situation of Europe after 1945 changed radically due to establishing communist states in the Balkan Peninsula and the appearance of an utterly different type of political power. The paper formulates as well the second main thesis that the general leadership in the Balkans in the 19th – 20th cs. was based on shortages: the shortage of political and legal culture, the shortage of elites, of social power, security, education, traffic routes (disintegration), cities and townsfolk etc. All this impeded social development and facilitated the appearance of strong, patriarchal leadership in its different forms. Not all cultural factors and historical heritage affected the character of leadership in an equally powerful manner, but one can distinguish the common core.References
Angelamatis-Tsougarakis H., The Eve of the Greek Revival. British Travellers’ Perceptions of Early Nineteenth Century Greece, London-New York 1990.
Антонић Cлободан, Друштвена основа и садашњи покушај модернизације, w: Елита, грађанство и слаба држава, „Службени гласник”, Београд 2009.
Antonić Slobodan, Zarobljena zemlja. Srbija za vlade Slobodana Miloševića, Beograd 2002.
Aulneau Joseph, Crna Gora na Balkanu, Cetinje 1908.
Balkan strongmen: dictators and authoritarian rulers of South Eastern Europe / Bernd J. Fischer, editor., Purdue University Press, 2007.
Bell John, Peasants in Power. Aleksander Stambolijski and The Bulgarian Agrarian National Union 1899- 1923, Princeton Univ. Press 1977.
Black Cyril E., Russia and the Modernization of Southeastern Europe, w: Conference on the Transformation of the Balkans since the Turkish Era, mps. Berkeley 1960.
Blondel Jean, Political leadership: towards a general analysis, London & Beverly Hills 1987.
Bondarek Jacek et al., Historia Grecji, Kraków 2005.
Bozeva-Abazi Katrin, The Shaping of Bulgarian and Serbian National Identities 1800-1900, Skopje 2007.
Цанков Aлександър, България в бурно време. Спомени, София 1998. Chirol sir V., Serbia and Serbs, Oxford 1914.
Clark Bruce, Twice a Stranger. How Mass Expulsion Forged Modern Greece and Turkey, London 2006.
Close David H., Greece since 1945. Politics, Economy and Society, London 2002.
Cohen Lenard J., The Milošević Dictatorship: Institutionalizing Power and Ethno-Populism in Serbia (in:) Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe, ed. Bernd J. Fisher, London 2007.
Crampton Richard J., Bulgaria 1878-1918. A History, New York 1983.
Cvijić Jovan, Balkansko Poluostrvo i južnoslovenske zemlje, Beograd 2011.
Dakin Douglas, The Greek Struggle in Macedonia 1897-1913, Thessaloniki 1993.
Danforth Loring M., van Boeschten Riki, Children of the Greek Civil War. Refugees and the Political Memory, University of Chicago Press 2012.
Daskalov Roumen, Debating the Past. Modern Bulgarian History from Stambolov to Zhivkov, Budapest- -New York 2011.
Дашић Mиомир, О неким општим погледима на Црну Гору епохе краља Николе (1860-1918), Подгорица 1998.
Despotović Ljubiša, Srpska politička moderna. Srbija u procesima političke modernizacje 19. veka, Novi Sad 2008.
Đinđić Zoran, Metafore dr Zorana Đinđića, Beograd 2004. Ђуретић Bеселин, Разaрање Српства у XX веку. Идеoлoшка употреба историје, Београд 1992.
Dolenec Danijela, Democratic institutions and authoritarian rule in Southeast Europe. Colchester 2013.
Dragnich Alex N., The Development of Parliamentary Govermant in Serbia, New York 1978.
Дворниковић Bладимир, Карактерологија Југословена, Bеоград 1939.
Dvorniković Vladimir, Psiha jugoslovenske melanholije, Zagreb 1925.
Dymarski Mirosław, Północna Albania w polityce władcy Czarnogóry Mikołaja I Petrovicia 1878-1913, w: Polska leży na Zachodzie. Studia z dziejów Polski i Europy dedykowane Pani Profesor Teresie Kulak, Toruń 2011.
Ekмечић Mилорад, Стварање Југославиjе 1790-1918, t. 1, Београд 1989. Fisher-Galati Stephan, Man, State and Society in East European History, New-York-London 1970.
Gardner Howard, Leading Minds: An Anatomy of Leadership, New York 1995.
Гешева Йoрданка, Държавната институция Велико Народно Събрание (1897-1911 г.). Исторически аспекти, София 2001.
Gil Dorota, Historia jako fatum. Dzieje narodu i państwa według współczesnych historiozofów serbskich, „Slavia Meridialis” 5, Warszawa 2005.
Горгиев Пламен, Българската култура в ‘дефицит’ или ‘промянa’, „Годишник на ВСУ [Варненски свободен университет „Черноризец Храбър”] 1997 – 3.
Хрисимова Oгиняна, Пътят на една идея. За правата, правилата и малцинствата в Европейския Югоизток между двете световни войни, Варна 2003.
Ilić Jovan, Grdović Jovanka, Hadži-Jovanović Dušanka, The Serbian Question in the Balkans. Geographical and Historical Aspects, Beogard 1995.
Иванов Димитър, Стефан Стамболов - българската енергия, София 1993.
Јагодић Mилош, Насељавање Кнежевине Србије 1861-1880, Београд 2004.
Јовановић Cлободан, Друга влада Милошa и Михаила, Београд 1933.
Карађић Bук, Даница 1826-1827-1828-1829-1834, Београд 1969.
Карасимеонов Георги, Партийната системата на България, София 2010.
Karpat Kemal H., Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History, Leiden-Boston-Köln 2002.
Karvounarakis Theodossios, Mirage of final Victory: War and Diplomacy at the Height of the Greek Anatolian Campaign July-September 1921, „Modern Greek Studies Yearbook”, vol. 9, 1983.
Konstadinova Tatiana, Bulgaria 1897-1946.The Challenge of Choice, Columbia Univ. Press New York 1995.
Kritikos George, Motives for Compulsory Population Exchange in the Aftermath of the Greek-Turkish War (1922-1923), „ΔEΛTIO. KENTROY MIKPAΣIATIKΩN ΣΠOYΔΩN”, T. 13, ΑΘΗΝΑ 1999-2000.
Legg Keith R., Politics in Modern Greece, Stanford 1969.
Lewandowski Edmund, Pejzaż etniczny Europy, Warszawa 2004.
Lewis Bernard, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, New York-Oxford 2002.
Luketić Katarina, Balkan: od geografije do fantazije, Zagreb-Mostar 2013.
Markovich Slobodan G., British Perceptions of Serbia and the Balkans 1903-1906, Paris 2000.
Markovich Slobodan G., The Political and Economic Heritage of Modern Serbia, w: Challenges to New Democracies in the Balkans, ed. Slobodan G. Markovich, E.B. Weaver, V. Pavlović, Belgarde 2004.
Markoviќ Marjan, The Macedonian language: overview of the contemporary situation, w: Macedonia: land, region borderland, ed. J. Sujecka, Warsaw 2013.
Mavrodieva Ivanka, Rethorical, Political and Public Relations Aspects of Candidates Debates During Presidential Election Campaigns in Bulgaria ( 1991-2006), „Controversia” Vol. 8, Issue 1.
Mazower Mark, Greece and the Interwar Economic Crisis, Oxford 1991.
McGrew William W., Land and Revolution in Modern Greece 1800-1881, The Kent State Univ. Press 1985.
McGregor Burns J., Leadership, Harper & Row, New York 1978.
Meininger Thomas Albert, The Formation of a Nationalist Bulgarian Intelligentsia 1835-1878, University of Wisconsin, Ph.D., 1974 (University Microfilms Ann Arbor, Michigan).
Miller William, Travels and Politics in The Near East, London 1898. Милошевић Cлободан, Прилог историји двадесетог века, Београд 2008.
Митеев Eнчо, Държавникът Стефан Стамболов, София 1992. Орловић Cлавиша, Политички живот у Србије између партократије и демократије, „Службени гласник” Београд 2008.
Palairet Michael, The Balkan economies c. 1800-1914: evolution without development, Cambridge 1997.
Papacosma Victor S., The Military in Greek Politics: A History Survey (in:) Greece in Transition. Essays in the History of Modern Greece 1821-1974, ed. J. T. Koumoulides, London 1977.
Parusheva Dobrinka, „They are all Rotters!”. Political Culture and Political Caricature in South-Eastern Europe Late 19th and Early 20th century, „Études balkaniques” XLIV, 2008, No 4.
Paszkiewicz Jędrzej, Rola klientelizmu w ewolucji greckiego systemu politycznego(do 1947 roku), „Prace Komisji Środkowoeuropejskiej PAU” Kraków 2011, t. XIX.
Павловић Ставан К., Србија. Историја иза имена, Београд 2004.
Pavlovic Vukasin, Ethnic Conflicts as Identity Conflicts, w: Problems of Identities in the Balkans, ed. Markovich S.G., Weaver E.B., Pavlovic V., Belgrade 2006.
Перишић Mирослав, Град и грађанин у Србији крајем 19. века, „Историјски записи”, LXXI, 1998/3-4.
Перовић Латинка, Зоран Ђинђић и српско друшство, Београд 2013.
Perry Duncan M., Stefan Stambolov and the Emergence of Modern Bulgaria 1870-1895, London 1993.
Петков Добри, Страници из спомените ми за Стамболова, w: Стефан Стамболов като револуционер, общественик и државник, София 1921.
Pinson Marc, Ottoman Colonization of the Circassians in Rumeli after the Crimean War, „Études balkaniques”, 1972, No. 3.
Popović-Obradović Olga, Kakva ili kolika država. Ogledi o političkoj i društvenoj istoriji Srbije XIX i XX veka, Beograd 2008.
Popović Nebojša, Nikolć Kosta, Vojislav Koštunica – jedna karijera, Beograd 2006.
Protić Milan S., Serbian Radicalism 1881-1903. Political Thought and Practice, „Balcanica” XXXVIII, Belgrade 2008.
Рајс Aрчибалд, Чујте Сирби! Чувајте се себе, Београд 2008.
Rastoder Šerbo, Životna pitanja Crne Gore 1918-1929, Knj. I, Bar 1995.
Рат Србије са Турском за ослобоженије и ниезависност 1877-1878, Београд 1879.
Rubacha Jarosław, Bułgarski sen o Bizancjum, Warszawa 2004.
Seaton-Watson Robert William, The Rise of Nationality in the Balkans, New York 1918.
Shaw Stanford J., Shaw Ezel Kural, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, vol. II, Cambridge 2002.
Smith Michael Llewellyn, Ionian Vision. Greece in Asia Minor 1919-1922, London 1973.
Стамболийски Aлександър, Принципите на БЗНС, София 1919.
Станковић Ћорђе, Сто говора Николе Пашића. Вештина говориштва државника, књига 1, Београд 2007.
Stavrianos Leften Stavros., The Balkans since 1454, London 2002.
Стевановић Бранислав, Политичка култура и културни идетитети у Србији и на Балкану, Ниш 2008.
Stevanovic Vidoslav, Milosevic. The People’s Tyrant, London 2004.
Стоянов Петър, Стара Варна в първите години след Освобождението 1878-1890, Варна 1992.
Stojanović Dubravka, Recepcja ideal slobode, jednakosti i bratstva kod srpske elite početkom 20 veka w:Srbija u modernizacijskim procesima 19. i 20 veka. 3 Uloga elita, red. L. Perović, Beogard 2003.
Стојановић Дубравка, Србија и демократија 1903-1914: историјска студиа о „златом добу српске демократије”, Београд 2003.
Стојановић Дубравка, Уље на води: политика и друштво у модерној историји Србије, w: Љ. Димић, Д. Стојановић, М. Јовановић, Србија 1804-2004 – три виђенња или позив на дијалог, Београд 2005.
Stojanović Trojan, Balkanski svetovi. Prva i poslednja Evropa, Beograd 1997.
Стојанчевић Bладимир, Милош Обреновић и његово доба, Београд 1966. Stokes Gale, Politics as Development. The Emergence of Political Parties in Nineteenth-Century Serbia, Duhram-London 1990.
Stokes Gale, Social Origins of East European Politics, w: The Origin of Backwardness in Eastern Europe. Economics and Politics from the Middle Ages until the Early Twentieth Century, ed. D. Chirot, Berkeley 1991.
Sunhaussen Holm, Eliten, Bürgertum, politische Klasse? Anmerkungen zu den Oberschichten in den Balkanländer des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts, w: Eliten in Südosteuropa, (red) W. Höpke, H. Sunhaussen, „Südosteuropa Jahrbuch” 29, München 1998.
Sundhaussen Holm, Historische Statistik Serbien 1834-1914 mit europäischen Vergleichsdaten, Oldenburg Verlag, München 1989.
Свирчевић Mирослав, Локална управа и развој српске државе, Београд 2011.
Шейтанов Hайден, Балкано-българският титанизъм, София 2006.
Taillander S.R., Serbia w XIX wieku. Dzieje wyzwolenia się Serbii z pod [sic] jarzma tureckiego, Toruń 1873.
Taylor I.R., The Double-Eagle and Fox. The Dual Monarchy and Bulgaria 1911-1913, Ann Arbor 1979 (mikrofilm).
Todorov Antony, Bulgarian Political Culture and Civic Participation , Friedrich Ebert Fundation. Office Bulgaria, Analyses, 2011.
Toдopoв Aнтоний, Политически култури в модерн България, „Политически изследования” III 1993.
Todorov Nikolai, The Balkan City 1400-1900, Seatlle-London 1983.
Tomanović Lazar, Pedeset godina na prestolu Crne Gore 1860-1910, Cetinje 1910.
Tripković Milan, Tripković Gordana, Stranputice Srbije, Novi Sad 2009.
Tsoucalas Constantin, On the Problem of Political Clientelism in Greece in the Nineteenth Century, „Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora”, Spring 1978, Vol. 1, No. 1.
Tzvetkov Plamen S., A history of the Balkans. A regional overview from a Bulgarian perspective, San Francisco 1993.
Vidoeski Božidar, Dialekty macedońskie w Albanii, „Slavia Meridionalis” 1999/2.
Vojevoda Simo Popović, Memoari, Podgorica-Cetinje 1995.
Volkan Vamık D., Itzkowitz Norman, Turks and Greeks. Neighbours in Conflict, Huntingdon 1994.
Vucinich Wayne S., The Ottoman Empire. Its Record and Legacy, Princeton 1965.
Wasilewski Tadeusz, Historia Bułgarii, Wrocław-Warszawa 1988.
Weber Max, Panowanie urzędników a przywództwo polityczne, Kraków 1998.
Wildavski Aaron, A Cultural Theory of Leadership, w: Cultural Analysis: Politics, Public Law and Administration, red. B. Swedlow, New Brunswick 2006.
Wildavski Aaron, Kulturowa teoria przywództwa, w: Władza a społeczeństwo. Antologia tekstów z zakresu socjologii polityki, red. J. Szczupaczyński Warszawa 1995.
Witos Wincenty, Moje wspomnienia, T. II, Warszawa 1990.
Вучо Никола, Развој индустрије у Србији у XIX веку, Београд 1981.
Вукосављевић Cретен, Историја сељачког друшства, knj. III, Социологија сељачких радова, Београд 1983.
Вулетић Aлександра, Породица у Србији средином века, Београд 2002.
Wybranowski Dariusz, Tradycje historyczne władzy wykonawczej i jej ewolucja w wybranych państwach Bałkanów Zachodnich po 1989 roku (Bośnia i Hercegowina, Chorwacja, Serbia, Czarnogóra), w: Władza wykonawcza w Polsce i Europie, red. M. Drzonka, A. Wołka, Kraków-Nowy Sącz 2009.
License
- The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person.The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
- The Author grants the Purchaser non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons. - The Author grants the Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan permission to:
3.1. reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
3.2. send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases. - The Author declares that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Purchaser is entitled and obliged to allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the attributed license pattern Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-ND 4.0) or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons. Thereby, the Author entitles all interested parties to use the work, for non-commercial purposes only, under the following conditions:
4.1. acknowledgment of authorship, i.e. observing the obligation to provide, along with the distributed work, information about the author, title, source (link to the original Work, DOI) and of the license itself.
4.2. the derivatives of the Work are subject to the same conditions, i.e. they may be published only based on a licence which would be identical to the one granting access to the original Work. - The University of Adam Mickiewicz in Poznań is obliged to
5.1. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.2. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
Other provisions
- The University of Adam Mickiewicz in Poznań hereby preserves the copyright to the journal as a whole (layout/stylesheet, graphics, cover design, logo etc.)