Plants and animals in Phrygian beliefs (an outline of the problems set against the Indo-European and Near East background)

Abstract

The article analyzes the significance of plants and animals in Phrygian beliefs, presenting them against the background of Indo-European traditions and Near Eastern influences. The aim of the study is to reconstruct the symbolism of nature in the religion of the Phrygians and to indicate its connections with Greek mythology. The author emphasizes the complex and layered character of Phrygian beliefs, combining indigenous (Indo-European) elements with later Anatolian influences. The analysis shows that Phrygian religion was strongly connected with the cycle of nature, fertility, and the renewal of life. A special role was played by trees such as pine (associated with Attis), oak, and linden, which had sacred functions and symbolized life, death, and their continuity. Plants and their fruits, such as the almond tree and vine, were also important and were associated with fertility and the generative forces of nature. The article also highlights the significance of mistletoe as a symbol of life and death and the cornel tree in connection with the myth of the Gordian knot. In the animal world, birds (eagle and rooster) and the snake occupied an important place. The eagle symbolized royal power and connection with the supreme deity, while the rooster combined celestial and chthonic aspects. The snake reflected both ancient totemic beliefs and associations with fertility, death, and rebirth. The author concludes that the symbolism of plants and animals is key to understanding Phrygian religion, based on observation of nature and its cyclical character. Numerous analogies with other Indo-European traditions confirm the common roots of these belief systems.