Słowa kluczowe
propaganda
kult jednostki
Jak cytować
Abstrakt
Zadaniem niniejszego artykułu jest próba podejścia porównawczego do zjawiska kultu jednostki, które stanowiło cechę charakterystyczną trzech systemów politycznych o charakterze totalitarnym, które rozwinęły się w Europie po pierwszej wojnie światowej, a mianowicie Włochy pod rządami Benito Mussoliniego, nazistowska Trzecia Rzesza oraz stalinowski Związek Radziecki. Stąd też po ogólnej prezentacji zjawiska kultu jednostki w tych trzech systemach politycznych o charakterze totalitarnym, dokonano analizy czterech kwestii. A mianowicie: tak zwane „produkty kultu”, metody używane w propagandzie kultu jednostki, funkcje kultu jednostki oraz postawy samych totalitarnych przywódców w stosunku do kultu jednostki skoncentrowanego na ich osobach.
Bibliografia
Barber J. (1993), The Image of Stalin in Soviet Propaganda and Public Opinion during World War 2, in: World War 2 and the Soviet People. Selected Papers from the Fourth World Congress for Soviet and East European Studies, Harrogate 1990, eds. J. Garrard, C. Garrard, St. Martin Press, New York.
Beetham D. (1991), The Legitimation of Power, MacMillan, London.
Beetham D. (2005), Political Legitimacy, in: The Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology, eds. K. Nash, A. Scott, Blackwell, London.
Behrends J. C. (2004), Exporting the Leader: The Stalin Cult in Poland and East Germany (1944/5–1956), in: The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships. Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, eds. B. Apor, J. C. Behrends, J. Polly, E. E. Rees, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Bonnell V. E. (1999), Iconography of Power: Soviet Political Posters under Lenin and Stalin, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Borejsza J. W. (2006), Italian Fascism, Nazism and Stalinism: Three Forms of Totalitarianism from a Twenty-first-century perspective, in: Totalitarian and Authoritarian Regimes in Europe. Legacies and Lessons from the Twentieth Century, eds. J. W. Borejsza, K. Ziemer, Berghahn Books, New York.
Bosworth R. J. B. (2005), Mussolini’s Italy. Life under the dictatorship 1915–1945, Allen Lane, London.
Brandenberger D. (2005), Stalin as symbol: a case study of the personality cult and its construction, in: Stalin. A New History, eds. S. Davies, J. Harris, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Davies S., Harris J. (2014), Stalin’s World. Dictating the Soviet Order, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Duggan Ch. (2008), The Force of Destiny. A history of Italy since 1796, Allen Lane, London.
Duggan Ch. (2012), Fascist Voices. An Intimate History of Mussolini’s Italy, The Bodley Head, London.
Ennker B. (2004), The Stalin Cult, Bolshevik Rule and Kremlin Interaction in the 1930s, in: The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships. Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, eds. B. Apor, J. C. Behrends, J. Polly, E. E. Rees, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Falasca-Zamponi S. (1997), Fascist Spectacle: The Aestetics of Power in Mussolini’s Italy, University of California Press, Berkeley.
Farrell N. (2004), Mussolini. A New Life, Phoenix, London 2004.
Gellately R. (2008), Lenin, Stalin and Hitler. The age of social catastrophe, Vintage Books, New York.
Gentile E. (1993), Il culto del Littorio: La sacralizzazione della politica fascista, Laterza, Roma.
Gill G. (2011), Symbols and Legitimacy in Soviet Politics, Cambridge University Press, New York.
Kershaw I. (2001), The ‘Hitler Myth’. Image and Reality in the Third Reich, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Kershaw I. (2001a), Hitler and the Germans, in: R. Bessel, Life in the Third Reich, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Kertzer D. I. (2014), The Pope and Mussolini. The secret history of Pius XI and the rise of fascism in Europe, Random House, New York.
Kotkin S. (2014), Stalin. Paradoxes of Power, 1878–1928, Penguin Books, New York.
The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships. Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, eds. B. Apor, J. C. Behrends, J. Polly James, E. E. Rees, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Leese D. (2014), The Cult of Personality and Symbolic Politics, in: The Oxford Handbook of the History of Communism, ed. S. A. Smith, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Mawdsley E. (2003), The Stalin years. The Soviet Union 1929–1953, (2nd ed.), Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Merridale C. (1990), Moscow Politics and The Rise of Stalin. The Communist Party in the Capital, 1925–32, Macmillan, London.
Merriman J. (2010), A history of modern Europe, volume 2: From the French Revolution to the Present, W.W. Norton & Company, New York (3rd. edition).
Montefiore S. Sebag (2008), Young Stalin, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
Montefiore S. Sebag (2016), The Romanovs 1613–1918, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, London.
Morgan Ph. (2008), The Fall of Mussolini: Italy, the Italians, and the Second World War, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Neville P. (2015), Mussolini, Routledge, New York.
Overy R. J. (1984), Goering. The ‘Iron Man’, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London.
Overy R. (2004), The Dictators. Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia, Allen Lane, London.
Pine L. (2007), Hitler’s ‘National Community’. Society and Culture in Nazi Germany, Hodder Arnold, London.
Pirjevec J. (2018), Tito, Wydawnictwo Akademickie SEDNO, Warszawa (Slovenian original edition Ljubljana 2015).
Plamper J. (2004), Georgian Koba or Soviet ‘Father of Peoples’. The Stalin Cult and Ethnicity, in: The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships. Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, eds. B. Apor, J. C. Behrends, J. Polly, E. E. Rees, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Plamper J. (2012), The Stalin cult. A Study in the Alchemy of Power, Yale University Press, New Haven.
Rees E. A. (2004), Leader Cults: Varieties, Preconditions and Functions, in: The Leader Cult in Communist Dictatorships. Stalin and the Eastern Bloc, eds. B. Apor, J. C. Behrends, J. Polly, E. E. Rees, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
Rees L. (2012), The dark charisma of Adolf Hitler leading millions into the abyss, Ebury Press, St. Ives.
Rossoliński-Liebe G. (2018), Bandera Faszyzm Ludobójstwo Kult. Życie i mit ukraińskiego nacjonalisty, Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa (oryginal German edition Stuttgart 2014).
Schmidt U. (2007), Karl Brandt: The Nazi Doctor. Medicine and Power in the Third Reich, Hambledon Continuum, London.
Sebestyen V. (2018), Lenin dyktator, Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa (English original edition Weidenfeld & Nicholson London 2017).
Service R. (2009), The Penguin History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-first Century, Penguin Books, London.
Smith D. M. (1983), Mussolini, Granada Publishing Ltd, London.
Todd A. (2002), The European Dictatorships Hitler Stalin Mussolini, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Tucker R. C. (1973), Stalin as Revolutionary, 1879–1929 A Study in History and Personality, W.W. Norton and Company Inc., New York.
Tumarkin N. (1997), Lenin Lives! The Lenin Cult in Soviet Russia, (Enlarged Edition), Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.).
Volkogonov D. (2000), Stalin. Triumph and Tragedy, Phoenix, London.
Volker U. (2015), Hitler. Narodziny zła 1889–1939, Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa (original German edition Frankfurt am Main 2013).
Welch D. (1998), Hitler, UCL Press, London.
Welch D. (2003), ‘Working towards the Führer’. Charismatic leadership and the image of Adolf Hitler in Nazi propaganda, in: Working towards the Führer. Essays in honor of Sir Ian Kershaw, eds. A. McElligott, T. Kirk, Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Whittam J. (1995), Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Żyromski M. (2007), Power, legitimization and propaganda in imperial Rome, “Tyragetia” Arheologie Istorie Antica, vol. I, no. 1, Chisinau, pp. 317–322.