Keywords
implicit attitudes
Implicit Association Test
social desirability
explicit–implicit correspondence
How to Cite
Number of views: 1001
Number of downloads: 522
Abstract
This paper investigates the attitudinal/motivational predictors of second language (L2) academic achievement. Young adult learners of English as a foreign language (N = 311) completed several self-report measures and the Single-Target Implicit Association Test. Examination of the motivational profiles of high and low achievers revealed that attachment to the L1 community and the ought-to L2 self were negatively associated with achievement, while explicit attitudes toward the L2 course and implicit attitudes toward L2 speakers were positively associated with it. The relationship between implicit attitudes and achievement could not be explained either by social desirability or by other cognitive confounds, and remained significant after controlling for explicit self-report measures. Explicit–implicit congruence also revealed a similar pattern, in that congruent learners were more open to the L2 community and obtained higher achievement. The results also showed that neither the ideal L2 self nor intended effort had any association with actual L2 achievement, and that intended effort was particularly prone to social desirability biases. Implications of these findings are discussed.References
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2015). Human agency: Does the beach ball have free will? In Z. Dörnyei, P. MacIntyre, & A. Henry (Eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 55-72). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2016a). Unconscious motivation. Part I: Implicit attitudes toward L2 speakers. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 6, 423-454. doi: 10.14746/ssllt.2016.6.3.4
Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2016b, April). Dual-process models of the mind: Implicit attitudes in language learning. Paper presented at the American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL) Conference, Orlando, Florida, USA.
Anderson, S. F., & Maxwell, S. E. (2016). There’s more than one way to conduct a replication study: Beyond statistical significance. Psychological Methods, 21(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1037/met0000051
Back, M. D., & Vazire, S. (2012). Knowing our personality. In S. Vazire & T. D. Wilson (Eds.), Handbook of self-knowledge (pp. 131-156). New York: Guilford.
Banaji, M. R., & Heiphetz, L. (2010). Attitudes. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, G. Lindzey, & A. E. Jongsma (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed.) (pp. 353-393). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Barger, S. D. (2002). The Marlowe-Crowne affair: Short forms, psychometric structure, and social desirability. Journal of Personality Assessment, 79(2), 286-305. doi: 10.1207/S15327752JPA7902_11
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2010). Motivation. In S. T. Fiske, D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (5th ed.) (Vol. 1, pp. 268-316). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Blair, I. V., Ma, J. E., & Lenton, A. P. (2001). Imagining stereotypes away: The moderation of implicit stereotypes through mental imagery. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 828-841. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.828
Boo, Z., Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). L2 motivation research 2005-2014: Understanding a publication surge and a changing landscape. System, 55, 145-157. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2015.10.006
Bouchard, T. J. Jr., Segal, N. L., Tellegen, A., McGue, M., Keyes, M., & Krueger, R. (2003). Evidence for the construct validity and heritability of the Wilson–Patterson conservatism scale: A reared-apart twins study of social attitudes. Personality and Individual Differences, 34(6), 959-969. doi: 10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00080-6
Brunner Huber, L. R. (2007). Validity of self-reported height and weight in women of reproductive age. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 11(2), 137-144. doi: 10.1007/s10995-006-0157-0
Chan, D. (2009). So why ask me? Are self-report data really that bad? In C. E. Lance & R. J. Vandenberg (Eds.), Statistical and methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in the organizational and social sciences (pp. 309-336). New York: Routledge.
Connelly, B. S., & Ones, D. S. (2010). An other perspective on personality: Meta-analytic integration of observers’ accuracy and predictive validity. Psychological Bulletin, 136(6), 1092-1122. doi: 10.1037/a0021212
Crowne, D. P., & Marlowe, D. (1960). A new scale of social desirability independent of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 24(4), 349-354. doi: 10.1037/h0047358
Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19-36. doi: 10.1111/j.0026-7902.2005.00263.x
Cunningham, W. A., Johnson, M. K., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Neural components of social evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(4), 639-349. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.4.639
Cunningham, W. A., Johnson, M. K., Raye, C. L., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2004). Separable neural components in the processing of black and white faces. Psychological Science, 15(12), 806-813. doi: 10.1111/j.09 56-7976.2004.00760.x
Dasgupta, N., & Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 800-814. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.800
DeCasper, A. J., & Spence, M. J. (1986). Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perception of speech sounds. Infant Behavior and Development, 9(2), 133-150. doi: 10.1016/0163-6383(86)90025-1
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and researching motivation. Harlow: Longman.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self system. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Motivation in second language learning. In M. Celce-Murcia, D. M. Brinton, & M. A. Snow (Eds.), Teaching english as a second or foreign language (4rd ed.) (pp. 518-531). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Dörnyei, Z., & Al-Hoorie, A. H. (in press). The motivational foundation of learning languages other than global English. The Modern Language Journal.
Dörnyei, Z., & Chan, L. (2013). Motivation and vision: An analysis of future L2 self images, sensory styles, and imagery capacity across two target languages. Language Learning, 63, 437-462. doi: 10.1111/lang.12005
Dörnyei, Z., & Ryan, S. (2015). The psychology of the language learner revisited. New York: Routledge.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, U. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation (2nd ed.). Harlow: Pearson.
Eid, J. (2008). Determining the relationship between visual style, imagination, the L2 motivational self system and the motivation to learn English, French and Italian (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Nottingham, UK.
Elgar, F. J., Roberts, C., Tudor-Smith, C., & Moore, L. (2005). Validity of self-reported height and weight and predictors of bias in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(5), 371-375. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2004.07.014
Ellis, R. (2009). A reader responds to Guilloteaux and Dörnyei’s “Motivating language learners: A classroom-oriented investigation of the effects of motivational strategies on student motivation.” TESOL Quarterly, 43(1), 105-109. doi: 10.1002/j.1545-7249.2009.tb00229.x
Fazio, R. H. (2001). On the automatic activation of associated evaluations: An overview. Cognition and Emotion, 15(2), 115-141. doi: 10.1080/02699930125908
Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(5), 557-572. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.87.5.557
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
García, O. (2014). Countering the dual: Transglossia, dynamic bilingualism and translanguaging in education. In R. Rubdy & L. Alsagoff (Eds.), The global-local interface and hybridity: Exploring language and identity (pp. 100-118). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C. (2007). Motivation and second language acquisition. Porta Linguarum, 8, 9-20.
Gardner, R. C. (2010). Motivation and second language acquisition: The socio-educational model. New York: Peter Lang.
Gardner, R. C., & Gliksman, L. (1982). On “Gardner on affect”: A discussion of validity as it relates to the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery: A response from Gardner. Language Learning, 32, 191-200. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1982.tb00527.x
Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R. N., & Moorcroft, R. (1985). The role of attitudes and motivation in secod language learning: Correlational and experimental considerations. Language Learning, 35, 207-227. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-1770.1985.tb01025.x
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second-language acquisition. Canadian Journal of Psychology/Revue canadienne de psychologie, 13(4), 266-272. doi: 10.1037/h0083787
Gardner, R. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (1991). An instrumental motivation in language study: Who says it isn’t effective? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13(1), 57-72. doi: 10.1017/S0272263100009724
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (1995). Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review, 102(1), 4-27. doi: 10.1037 /0033-295X.102.1.4
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2015). Statistically small effects of the Implicit Association Test can have societally large effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 108(4), 553-561. doi: 10.1037/pspa0000016
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464-1480. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2009). Attitudinal dissociation: What does it mean? In R. E. Petty, R. H. Fazio, & P. Briñol (Eds.), Attitudes: Insights from the new implicit measures (pp. 65-82). New York: Psychology Press.
Greenwald, A. G., Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2003). Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 197-216. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.197
Gregg, A. P., Seibt, B., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). Easier done than undone: Asymmetry in the malleability of implicit preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(1), 1-20. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.90.1.1
Henry, A., & Cliffordson, C. (2015). The impact of out-of-school factors on motivation to learn English: Self-discrepancies, beliefs, and experiences of self-authenticity. Applied Linguistics. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1093/applin/amv060
Hessel, G. (2015). From vision to action: Inquiring into the conditions for the motivational capacity of ideal second language selves. System, 52, 103-114. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2015.05.008
Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. In P. Z. Mark (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 30, pp. 1-46): Academic Press.
Inquisit (Version 4.0.5.0) [Computer software]. (2014). Seattle, WA: Millisecond Software.
Johnson, T. P., Fendrich, M., & Mackesy-Amiti, M. E. (2012). An evaluation of the validity of the Crowne–Marlowe need for approval scale. Quality & Quantity, 46(6), 1883-1896. doi: 10.1007/s11135-011-9563-5
Kim, T.-Y. (2009). Korean elementary school students’ perceptual learning style, ideal L2 self, and motivated behavior. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 9(3), 461-486.
Kim, Y.-K., & Kim, T.-Y. (2011). The effect of Korean secondary school students’ perceptual learning styles and ideal L2 self on motivated L2 behavior and English proficiency. Korean Journal of English Language and Linguistics, 11(1), 21-42.
Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to learn English in urban and rural settings. Language Learning, 62(4), 997-1023. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00719.x
Lambert, W. E. (1973, November). Culture and language as factors in learning and education. Paper presented at the 5th Annual Learning Symposium on “Cultural Factors in Learning,” Bellingham, Washington, USA and at the Annual Convention of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Denver, Colorado, USA. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED096820)
Lanvers, U. (2016). Lots of selves, some rebellious: Developing the self discrepancy model for language learners. System, 60, 79-92. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2016.05.012
MacIntyre, P. D., Mackinnon, S. P., & Clément, R. (2009). The baby, the bathwater, and the future of language learning motivation research. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 43-65). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Serroul, A. (2015). Motivation on a per-second timescale: Examining approach-avoidance motivation during L2 task performance. In Z. Dörnyei, P. MacIntyre, & A. Henry (Eds.), Motivational dynamics in language learning (pp. 109-138). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Masgoret, A.-M., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53(1), 123-163. doi: 10.1111/1467-9922.00212
McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
McClelland, D. C., & Atkinson, J. W. (1948). The projective expression of needs: I. The effect of different intensities of the hunger drive on perception. The Journal of Psychology, 25(2), 205-222. doi: 10.1080/00223980.1948.9917371
Molenaar, I. W., & Sijtsma, K. (2000). MSP5 for Windows: A program for Mokken scale analysis for polytomous items (Version 5.0). Groningen: ProGAMMA.
Morey, R. D., & Rouder, J. N. (2015). BayesFactor: Computation of Bayes factors for common designs. R package version 0.9.12-2. Retrieved from http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=BayesFactor
Moskovsky, C., Assulaimani, T., Racheva, S., & Harkins, J. (2016). The L2 motivational self system and L2 achievement: A study of Saudi EFL learners. The Modern Language Journal, 100(3), 641-654. doi: 10.1111/modl.12340
Motha, S., & Lin, A. (2014). “Non-coercive rearrangements”: Theorizing desire in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 48(2), 331-359. doi: 10.1002/tesq.126
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs to academic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 38(1), 30-38. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30
Nassaji, H. (2012). Statistical significance tests and result generalizability: Issues, misconceptions, and a case for replication. In G. K. Porte (Ed.), Replication research in applied linguistics (pp. 92-115). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Neuliep, J. W., & McCroskey, J. C. (1997). The development of a U.S. and generalized ethnocentrism scale. Communication Research Reports, 14(4), 385-398. doi: 10.1080/08824099709388682
Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., Jaccard, J., & Tetlock, P. E. (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(2), 171-192. doi: 10.1037/a0032734
Papi, M. (2010). The L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: A structural equation modeling approach. System, 38(3), 467-479. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2010.06.011
Phelps, E. A., O’Connor, K. J., Cunningham, W. A., Funayama, E. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., & Banaji, M. R. (2000). Performance on indirect measures of race evaluation predicts amygdala activation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12(5), 729-738. doi: 10.1162/089892900562552
Radel, R., Sarrazin, P., Jehu, M., & Pelletier, L. (2013). Priming motivation through unattended speech. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52(4), 763-772. doi: 10.1111/bjso.12030
Rowland, M. L. (1990). Self-reported weight and height. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 52(6), 1125-1133. doi: PMID: 2239790
Rudman, L. A. (2008). The validity of the Implicit Association Test is a scientific certainty. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 1(4), 426-429. doi: 10.1111/ j.1754-9434.2008.00081.x
Rutherford, A. (2000). Introducing ANOVA and ANCOVA: A GLM Approach. London: Sage.
Ryan, R. M. (Ed.). (2012). The Oxford handbook of human motivation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Ryan, S. (2009). Self and identity in L2 motivation in Japan: The ideal L2 self and Japanese learners of English. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 120-143). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., & Trope, Y. (Eds.). (2014). Dual-process theories of the social mind. New York: Guilford.
Sherman, S. J., Rose, J. S., Koch, K., Presson, C. C., & Chassin, L. (2003). Implicit and explicit attitudes toward cigarette smoking: The effects of context and motivation. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(1), 13-39. doi: 10.1521/jscp.22.1.13.22766
Sinclair, S., Dunn, E., & Lowery, B. S. (2005). The relationship between parental racial attitudes and children’s implicit prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(3), 283-289. doi: 10.1016/j.jesp.2004.06.003
Spencer, E. A., Appleby, P. N., Davey, G. K., & Key, T. J. (2002). Validity of self-reported height and weight in 4808 EPIC–Oxford participants. Public Health Nutrition, 5(4), 561-565. doi: 10.1079/PHN2001322
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004). Reflective and impulsive determinants of social behavior. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 8(3), 220-247. doi: 10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1
Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system among Japanese, Chinese and Iranian learners of English: A comparative study. In Z. Dörnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 66-97). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Taylor, F. (2013). Self and identity in adolescent foreign language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Tedeschi, J. T., Schlenker, B. R., & Bonoma, T. V. (1971). Cognitive dissonance: Private ratiocination or public spectacle? American Psychologist, 26(8), 685-695. doi: 10.1037/h0032110
Tenenbaum, H. R., & Leaper, C. (2002). Are parents’ gender schemas related to their childrens’ gender-related cognitions? A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 38(4), 615-630. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.4.615
Thompson, A. S., & Vásquez, C. (2015). Exploring motivational profiles through language learning narratives. The Modern Language Journal, 99(1), 158-174. doi: 10.1111/modl.12187
Wang, F. (2008). Motivation and English achievement: An exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis of a new measurement for Chinese students of English learning. North American Journal of Psychology, 10(3), 633-646.
Wigboldus, D. H. J., Holland, R. W., & van Knippenberg, A. (2005). Single target implicit associations. Unpublished manuscript.
Zogmaister, C., Perugini, M., & Richetin, J. (2015). Motivation modulates the effect of approach on implicit preferences. Cognition and Emotion. Advance online publication. doi: 10.1080/02699931.2015.1032892
License
1.1 The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person. The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
1.2. The Publisher warrants that is the owner of the PRESSto platform for open access journals, hereinafter referred to as the PRESSto Platform.
2. The Author grants the Publisher non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons.
3. The Author grants the Publisher permission to reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
4. The Author grants the Publisher permission to send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases.
5. The Author represents that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Publisher is entitled and obliged to:
5.1. allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made, based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Creative Commons sub-license or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons;
5.2. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.3. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
6. Because of the royalty-free provision of services of the Author (resulting from the scope of obligations stipulated in the present Agreement), the Author shall not be entitled to any author’s fee due and payable on the part of the Publisher (no fee or royalty is payable by the Publisher to the Author).
7.1. In the case of third party claims or actions for indemnity against the Publisher owing to any infractions related to any form of infringement of intellectual property rights protection, including copyright infringements, the Author is obliged to take all possible measures necessary to protect against these claims and, when as a result of legal action, the Publisher, or any third party licensed by the Publisher to use the Work, will have to abandon using the Work in its entirety or in part or, following a court ruling in a legal challenge, to pay damages to a third party, whatever the legal basis
7.2. The Author will immediately inform the Publisher about any damage claims related to intellectual property infringements, including the author’s proprietary rights pertaining to a copyrighted work, filed against the Author. of liability, the Author is obliged to redress the damage resulting from claims made by third party, including costs and expenditures incurred in the process.
7.3. To all matters not settled herein provisions of the Polish Civil Code and the Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act shall apply.