Keywords
metallurgy
ancient Egypt
archaeometallurgy
iron artefacts
How to Cite
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to present the use of iron in ancient Egypt up to the beginning of the Late Period. The presentation of the development of metallurgy of this metal will be possible through the analysis of the preserved objects and their fragments, which show the subsequent stages of learning about the new raw material and the gradual adoption of various methods of iron processing. Due to the fact that no traces of iron processing workshops have survived from the times preceding the Late Period, the analysis of the preserved iron artifacts will enable the reconstruction of subsequent stages of the development of this metal metallurgy. Equally important as objects are the sources from which the Egyptians could obtain iron and the routes by which they imported it, because their presence is one of the basic requirements for metallurgy to develop and spread. I in studying the development of iron treatment the texts in which there is terminology describing iron will be also helpful. Furthermore, by reviewing the contexts of its use, it will be possible to enrich knowledge about the metallurgy of this metal. The analysis of the above points will allow to present a complete picture of iron metallurgy in Egypt.
References
Abd El-Rahman, Y. i in. (2013). Ancient Mining and smelting activities in the Wadi Abu Gerida Area, Central Eastern Desert, Egypt: Preliminary Results. Archaeometry, 55(6), 1067-1087. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00728.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4754.2012.00728.x
Abdel Tawab, M. M. (2012). The Role of Copper-Gold-Iron in Ancient Egyptian Politics. W: L. Evans (red.), Ancient Memphis: "Enduring is the Perfection". Proceedings of the International Conference held at Macquarie University, Sydney on August 14-15, 2008 (s. 399-401). Leuven - Paris - Walpole: MA.
Akaad, M. K., Dardir, A. A. (1978). The Iron Ore Deposit, of Wadi el Dabbah, Eastern Desert, Egypt. Precambrian Research, 6(1), A5-A6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(78)90062-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-9268(78)90062-1
Alexander, W., Street, A. Ch. (1990). Metals in the Service of Man. Nineth Edition. London: Penguin UK. Allen, J. (2010). Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs (Second Edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Almansa-Villatoro, M. V. (2019). The Cultural Indexicality of the N41 Sign for bjA: the Metal of the Sky and the Sky of Metal. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 105(1), 73-81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0307513319899948 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0307513319899948
Arkell, A. J. (1966). The Iron Age in the Sudan. Current Anthropology, 7(4), 451-452. https://doi.org/10.1086/200751 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/200751
Aston, D. (2009). Burial Assemblages of Dynasty 21-25: Chronology - Typology - Developments, Contributions to the chronology of the Eastern Mediterranean. T. 21 (Denkschriften der Gesamtakademie. T. 56). Vienna: Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (OAW). https://doi.org/10.1553/0x0022adab DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2mm1xm0
Attia, M. I. (1950). The geology of iron-ore deposits of Egypt. Cairo: Geol. Survey of Egypt.
Aufrère, S. (1991). L'Univers minéral dans la pensée égyptienne. T. 1: L'Influence du désert et des minéraux sur la mentalité des anciens Égyptiens. Le Caire: Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire.
Badawi, A. M. (1984). Pages from Excavations at Saqqarah and Mit Rahinah. Vies et Travaux. T. 4. Cairo: Dar Al-Maaref.
Bebermeier, W. i in. (2016). The Coming of Iron in a Comparative Perspective. Journal of Ancient Studies.
Specialny. T. 6: Space and Knowledge. Topoi Research Group Articles, 152-189.
Belck, W. (1907). Die Erfinder der Eisentechni k. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie, 39, 334-377.
Belzoni, G. B. (1820). Narrative of the Operations and recent Discoveries with the pyramids, temples, tombs, and excavations in the Egypt and Nubia. London: Thomas Davison Whitefriars.
Berthelot, M. (1895). Etudes sur les metaux. W: J. de Morgan (red.), Fouilles d Dahchour (s. 131-146). Vienna.
Bjorkman, J. K. (1973). Meteors and meteorites in the ancient Near East. Meteoritics, 8, 91-130. Breasted, J. H. (1906). Ancient Records of Egypt. Historical Documents. T. 2: The Eighteenth Dynasty. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1973.tb00146.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.1973.tb00146.x
Broschat, K. i in. (2018). Himmilisch! Die Eisenobjekte aus dem Grab des Tutanchamun. Mainz: Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums.
Broschat, K. i in. (2022). Iron from Tutankhamun's tomb (Translated by Manon Schutz). Cairo - New York: American University in Cairo Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xn164f DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv2xn164f
Brunton, G. (1948). Matmar. British Museum expedition to Middle Egypt, 1929-1931. London: Bernard Quaritch LTD.
Budge, E. A. W. (1904). British Museum. A Guide to the Third and Fourth Egyptian Rooms. London: Harrison and Sons.
Budge, E. A. W. (1913). The papyrus of Ani: a reproduction in facsimile. London: The Medici Society LTD.
Carey, Ch., Stremke, F., Humphris, J. (2019). The ironworking remains in the royal city of Meroe new insights on the Nile Corridor and the Kingdom of Kush. Antiquity, 93(368), 432-449. https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2018.182 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2018.182
Carnarvon, Earl of G. E. S., Carter, H. (1912 ). Five Years Exploration at Thebes: a record of work done 1907-1911. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carter, H. (1927). The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter II. London: Cassel & Company, LTD.
Carter, H. (1933). The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. Discovered by the Late Earl of Carnarvon and Howard Carter III. London: Cassel & Company, LTD.
Castel, G. i in. (1998). Les mines du ouadi Um Balad (d'esert Oriental). Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Archéologie Orientale, 98, 57-87.
Childs, S. T., Killick, D. (1993). Indigenous African Metallurgy Nature and Culture. Annual Review of Anthropology, 22, 317-337. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.001533 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.001533
Ciałowicz, K. M. (1999). Początki cywilizacji egipskiej. Warszawa - Kraków: Państwowe Wydawnictwo PWN.
Coghlan, H. H. (1956). Notes on Prehistoric and Early Iron in Old World. Occasional Papers on Technol gy 8. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Comelli, D., D'Orazio, M. (2016). The meteoritic origin of Tutankhamun's iron dagger. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 51(7), 1301-1309. https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.12664 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.12664
Cooke, S. R. B., Aschenbrenner, S. (1975). The Occurrence of Metallic Iron in Ancient Copper. Journal of Field Archaeology, 2(3), 264-266. https://doi.org/10.1179/009346975791491015 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/009346975791491015
Cordani, V. (2016). The Development of the Hittite Iron Industry. A Reappraisal of the Written Sources. https://doi.org/10.13109/wdor.2016.46.2.162 DOI: https://doi.org/10.13109/wdor.2016.46.2.162
Die Welt des Orients, 46(2), 162-176.
Craddock, P. T. (2000). From Hearth to Furnace: Evidences for the Earliest Metal Smelting Technologies in the Eastern Mediterranean. Paléorient. La Pyrotehnologie À Ses Débuts. Évolution Des Premières Industries Faisant Usage Du Feu / Early Pyrotechnology. The Evolution Of The First Fire-Using Industries, 26(2), 151-165. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2000.4716 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2000.4716
Craddock, P. T., Lang, J. (1993). Gizeh iron revisited. Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society, 27(2), 57-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-3702(93)90165-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0004-3702(93)90165-8
Curtis, J. E. i in. (1979). Neo-Assyrian Ironworking Technology. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 123(6), 369-390.
Černý, J. (1976). Coptic Ethymological Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dafa'alla, S. (1993). Succession in the Kingdom of Napata, 900-300 B.C. The International Journal of https://doi.org/10.2307/219190 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/219190
African Historical Studies, 26(1), 167-174.
D'Auria, S., Lacovara, P., Roehrig, C. H. (1988). Mummies and Magic, The Funerary Arts of Ancient Egypt. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts.
Davis, D. i in. (1985). A Steel Pick from Mt. Adir in Palestine. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 44(1), 41-51. https://doi.org/10.1086/373103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/373103
D'Orzaio, M. i in. (2011). Gebel Kamil, The iron meteorite that formed the Kamil crater (Egypt). Meteoritics & planetary Science, 46(8), 1179-1196. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2011.01222.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2011.01222.x
Dunham, D. (1955). The Royal Cemeteries of Kush - Nuri. T. 2. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts.
Dunham, D., Macadam, M. F. L. (1949). Names and Relationships of the Royal Family of Napata. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 35, 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/030751334903500124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030751334903500124
Dunham, D., Young, W. J. (1942). An Occurrence of Iron in the Fourth Dynasty. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 28, 57-58. https://doi.org/10.1177/030751334202800109 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/030751334202800109
Edwards, D. N. (2007). The Archaeology of Sudan and Nubia. Annual Review of Anthropology, 36, 211- 228. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.36.081406.094305 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.36.081406.094305
El Gayer, E. S., Jones, M. P. (1989). Metallurgical investigation of an iron plate found in 1837 in the Great Pyramid at Gizeh, Egypt. Journal of the Historical Metallurgy Society, 23(2), 75-82.
Erb-Satullo, N. L. (2019). The Innovation and Adoption of Iron in the Ancient Near East. Journal of Ar- chaeological Research, 20, 557-607 https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-019-09129-6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-019-09129-6
Folco, L. i in. (2011). Kamil Crater (Egypt): Ground truth for small-scale meteorite impacts on Earth. Geology, 39(2), 179-182. https://doi.org/10.1130/G31624.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1130/G31624.1
Forbes, R. J. (1950). Metallurgy in Antiquity. Leiden: E. J. Brill. Forbes, R. J. (1964). Studies in Ancient Technology. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Frankfort, H. (1934). Iraq Excavations of the Oriental Institute 1932/1933. Third Preliminary Report. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
Friend, J. N. (1927). Iron in Antiquity. Nature, 119, 42-43. https://doi.org/10.1038/119042a0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/119042a0
Fuchs, G., Hašek, V. Poichystal, A. (1995). Application of Geophysics in the Reaserch of Ancient Mining in Egypt, W: F. A. Esmael (red.), Proceedings of the First International Conference on Ancient Egyptian Mining & Metallurgy and Conservation of Metallic Artifacts. Cairo, Egypt 10-12 April 1995 (s. 33-54). Cairo.
Garland, H., Bannster, C. O. (1927). Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy. London: Charles Griffin & Company. Goff, B. L. (1979). Symbols of Ancient Egypt in the Late Period: The Twenty first dynasty. The Hague - Paris - New York: Mouton Publishers.
Graefe, E. (1971). Untersuchungen zur Wortfamilie bjA. Köln: Universitätsarchiv Köln.
Griffith, F. Ll. (1924). Excavations at el-'Amarnah, 1923-24. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 10(3/4), 299-305. https://doi.org/10.2307/3853932 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3853932
Grimal, N. (2004). Dzieje starożytnego Egiptu (tłum. A. Łukaszewicz). Warszawa: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy.
Haaland, R. (2006). Ritual and political aspects of iron working. Iron in war and conflict. W: K. Kroeper, M. Chłodnicki, M. Kobusiewicz (red.), Archaeology of Eary Northeastern Afica. In Memory of Lech Krzyżaniak (s. 135-152). Poznań: Poznań Archaeological Museum.
Haaland, R. (2014). The Meroitic Empire: Trade and Cultural Influences in an Indian Ocan Conext. African Archaeological Review, 31, 649-673. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-014-9169-0 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-014-9169-0
Hall, H. R. (1903). 86. Note on the Early Use of Iron in Egypt. Man, 3, 147-149. Hall, H. R. (1905). The Early Occurrence of Iron in Egypt. Man, 5, 69-71. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787555 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2840013
Hayes, W. C. (1959). The Scepter of Egypt. A Background for the Study of the Egyptian Antiquities in The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Part II: The Hyksos Period and the New Kingdom (1675-1080 BC). New York: Plantin Press.
Hellinckx, B. R. (2001). The Symbolic Assimilation of Head and Sun as Expressed by Headrests. Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, 29, 61-95.
Hume, W. F. (1909). Distribution of Iron Ores in Egypt. Survey Department paper no. 20 (s. 1-16). Cairo: National printing department.
Humphris, J., Rehren, Th. (2014). Iron production and the Kingdom of Kush: an introduction to UCL Qatar's research in Sudan. W: A. Lohwasser, P. Wolf (red.), Ein Forscherleben zwischen dem Welten. Sonderheft MittSAG (s. 177-190). Berlin.
Humphris, J., Scheibner T. (2017). A New Radiocarbon Chronology for Ancient Iron Production in the Meroe Region of Sudan. African Archaeological Review, 34, 377-413. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-017-9267-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-017-9267-x
Humphris, J. i in. (2018). Iron Smelting in Sudan: Experimental Archaeology at the Royal City of Meroe. Journal of Field Archaeology, 43(5), 399-416. https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00934690.2018.1479085
Humphris, J. i in. (2018). The ancient iron mines of Meroe. Azania Archaeological Research in Africa 53(3), 292-311. https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2018.1515922 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0067270X.2018.1515922
Jarmużek, Ł., Rzepka, S., Ryś, A. (2020). Tell El-Retaba In the 1st Millennium BC. Results of the Polish-Slovak Archaeological Mission, Season 2019. Ägypten Und Levante. Egypt and the Levant, 30, 119-156. https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL30s119 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL30s119
Johnson, D., Tyldesley, J. (2013). Analysis of a prehistoric Egyptian iron bead with implications for the use and perception of meteorite iron in ancient Egypt. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 48(6), 997-1006. https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.12120 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/maps.12120
Johnson, D., Tyldesley, J. (2016). Iron from the Sky. W: Mummies, Magic and Medicine (s. 408-423). Manchester: Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781784997502.00046 DOI: https://doi.org/10.7765/9781784997502.00046
Johnson, D. i in. (2014). Microstructural Analysis of a Predynastic Iron Meteorite Bead. W: R. Metcalfe, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqmp15f.17 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqmp15f.17
J. Cockitt, R. David (red.), Palaeopathology in Egypt and Nubia. A Century in Review (s. 129-140) (Archaeopress Egyptology, 6). Oxford.
Johnson, D., Grady, M. M., Tyldesley, J. (2011). Gerzeh, a prehistoric Egyptian meteorite. Meteoritics & Planetary Science, 46(S1), A114-A114.
Kaczanowicz, M. (2019). Egipt. Ostatnie wieki imperium (747-332 r. p.n.e.). Poznań: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM.
Kamrin, J. (2020). The "Tomb of the Princesses" (MMA 60) at Deir el-Bahri: An Overview. W: J. Kamrin, M. Bárta, S. Ikram, M. Lehner, M. Megahed (red.), Guardian of Ancient Egypt, Studies in Honor of Zahi Hawass. T. 2 (s. 793-829). Prague: Charles University, Faculty of Arts.
Killick, D. (2009). Cairo to Cape: The Spread of Metallurgy Through Eastern and Southern Africa. Journal of World Prehistory, 22(4). Modelling Early Metallurgy, 2, 399-414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-009-9025-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10963-009-9025-3
Kitchen, K. A. (1973). The Third Intermediate Period in Egypt (1100-650 B.C.). Warminister: Aris & Phillips LTD.
Klemm, R., Klemm, O. D. (1994). Chronologischer Abriss der antiken Goldgewinnung in der Ostwüste Ägyptens. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Abteilung Kairo (MDAIK), 50, 189-222.
Knudtzon, J. (1915). Die el-Amarna-Tafeln mit Einleitung und Erläuterungen. Leipzig: J. C. Hinriches'sche Buchhandlung. https://doi.org/10.1524/olzg.1914.17.16.248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1524/olzg.1914.17.16.248
Leclère, F., Spencer, J. (2014). Tell Dafana Reconsidered: The Archaeology of an Egyptian Frontier Town. London: The British Museum Press.
Lenoble, P. (2001). L'Arsenal de Meroe et le Monopole royal du fer dans L'empire meroitique. Mediterranean Archaeology, 14. The Origins of Iron Metallurgy, 209-217.
Lipińska, J., Koziński W. (1977). Cywilizacja miedzi i kamienia. Technika starożytnego Egiptu. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe.
Lucas, A. (1962). Ancient Egyptian Materials & Industries. Third Edition. London: Edward Arnold & Co. Maddin, R. (1975). Early Iron Metallurgy in the Near East. Transactions of the Iron and Steel Institute of Japan, 15(2), 59-68. https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational1966.15.59 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational1966.15.59
Mapunda, B. B. B. (1997). Patching up Evidence for Ironworking in the Horn. The African Archaeological Review, 14(2), 107-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02968369 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02968369
McNutt, P. M. (1990). The Forging of Israel. Iron Technology, Symbolism and Tradition in Ancient Society. Sheffield: The Almond Press, The Sheffield Academic Press.
Mond, R., Myers, O. H. (1937). Cemeteries of Armant I - Text and Plates. London: Oxford University Press.
Montet, P. (1942). La nécropole des rois Tanites. Kêmi - revue de philologie et d'archéologie égyptiennes et coptes, 9(1-96).
Montet, P. (1947). La nécropole royale de Tanis I: Les constructions et le tombeau d'Osorkon II à Tanis. Paris.
Montet, P. (1951). La nécropole royale de Tanis II. Les constructions et le tombeau de Psousennès à Tanis. Paris.
Moss, R. (1950). Iron-Mines near Aswān. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 36, 112-113. https://doi.org/10.2307/3855107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3855107
Moorey, P. R. S. (1999). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries. The Archaeological Evidence. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns.
Moran, W. L. (1992). The Amarna Letters. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Muhly, J. D. i in. (1985). Iron in Anatolia and the Nature of the Hittite Iron Industry. Anatolian Studies, 35, 67-84. https://doi.org/10.2307/3642872 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3642872
Mynářová, J. (2015). Discovery, Research and Excavation of the Amarna Tablets - the formative stage. W: A. F. Rainey, The El Amarna Correspondence. A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters from the Site of El-Amarna based on Collations of all Extant Tablets 1 (s. 37-46). Leiden - Boston: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004281547_003 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004281547_003
Myres, J. L. (1914). Handbook of the Cesnola collection of antiquities from Cyprus. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Nakhla, F. M. (1961). The iron ore deposits of El-Bahariya oasis, Egypt. Economic Geology, 56(6), 1103- 1111. https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.56.6.1103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2113/gsecongeo.56.6.1103
Napierała, M. (2021). Żelazo meteorytowe w starożytnym Egipcie przed okresem późnym. Folia Praehistorica Posnaniensia, 26, 241-279. https://doi.org/10.14746/fpp.2021.26.09 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/fpp.2021.26.09
Naville, E., Griffith, F. L. (1890). The Mound of the Jew and the City of Onias. Belbeis, Samanood, Abusir, Tukh el Karmus. London: Trübner & Co.
Nibbi, A. (1977). Some Remarks on Copper. Journal of American Research Center in Egypt, 14, 59-65. Odler, M. (2021). Book Review: Himmlisch! Die Eisenobjekte aus dem Grab des Tutanchamun. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 107, 305-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/03075133211043888 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/03075133211043888
Odler, M., Kmosek, J., Fikrle, M., Kochergina, Y. V. E. (2021). Arsenical Cooper Tools of Old Kingdom Giza craftsmen: First data. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 36, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102868 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.102868
Ogden, J. (2000). Metals. W: P. Nicholson, I. Shaw (red.), Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology (s. 148-176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Paillou, Ph., Barkooky, A. El, Barakat, A. (2004). Discovery of the largest impact crater field on Earth in the Gilf Kebir region, Egypt. C. R. Geoscience, 336, 1491-1500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2004.09.010 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2004.09.010
Pawlikowski, M., Wróbel, M. (2014). Meteoryt żelazny z Krateru Kamil, Pustynia Zachodnia. Egipt. Auxiliary sciences in archaeology, preservation of relicts and environmental engineering, 17, 1-8. Peake, H. (1933). The Origin and Early Spread of Ironworking. Geographical Review, 23(4), 639-652. Petrie, W. M. F. (1883). The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. London: Field & Tuer, Ve Leadenhalle Presse. https://doi.org/10.2307/209248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/209248
Petrie, W. M. F. (1886). Naukratis. T. 1. London: Trübner & Co.
Petrie, W. M. F. (1897). Six Temples at Thebes. London: Bernard Quaritc. Petrie, W. M. F. (1902). Abydos. T. 1. London: Gilbert and Rivington Limited. Petrie, W. M. F. (1903). Abydos. T. 2. London: Gilbert and Rivington Limited. https://doi.org/10.2307/2840718 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2840718
Petrie, W. M. F. (1906). Hyksos and Israelite cities. London: Hazel, Watson and Viney, LD.
Petrie, W. M. F. (1909). The Palace of Apries (Memphis II). London: Hazel, Watson and Viney, LD. Petrie, W. M. F. (1917). Tools and weapons illustrated by the Egyptian collection in University College. London: Hazel, Watson and Viney, LD.
Petrie, W. M. F. (1923). Lahun II. London: Adolf Holzhausen Vienna.
Petrie, W. M. F. (1928). Gerar. London: Adolf Holshausen's Successors Vienna.
Petrie, W. M. F., Wainwright, G. A. (1912). The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Mazghuneh. London: School of Archaeology in Egypt.
Petrie, W. M. F., Murray, A. S., Griffith, F. Ll. (1888). Nebesheh (Am) and Defenneh (Tahpanhes). Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund 4. London: Trübner & Co.
Pfeiffer, S. (2010). Naukratis, Heracleion - Thonis and Alexandria Remarks on the Presence and Trade Activities of Greeks in the North-West Delta from the Seventh Century BC to the End of the Fourth Century BC. W: D. Robinson, A. Wilson (red.), Alexandria and the North-Western Delta. Joint conference proceedings of Alexandria: City and Harbour (Oxford 2004) and The Trade and Topography of Egypt's North-West Delta, 8th century BC to 8th century AD (Berlin 2006) (s. 15-24). Oxford.
Phillips, G. B. (1924). The Antiquity of the Use of Iron. American Anthropologist, New Series, 26(2), 175-183. https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1924.26.2.02a00030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/aa.1924.26.2.02a00030
Pickles, S., Peltenburg, E. (1998). Metallurgy, Society and the Bronze/Iron Transition in the East Mediterranean and the Near East. Report of the Deprtment of Antiquities Cyprus 1998 (s. 67-100). Nicosia. Pleiner, R. (2000). Iron in archaeology The European Bloomery Smelters. Praha: Archeologický ústav AVČR.
Quibell, J. E. (1896). The Ramesseum. London: William Clowes and Sons.
Rainey, A. F. (2015). The El Amarna Correspondence. A New Edition of the Cuneiform Letters from the Site of El-Amarna based on Collations of a Extant Tablets. T. 1. Leiden - Boston: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004281547 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004281547
Randall-Maciver, D., Woolley C. L. (1911). Buhen. Philadelphia: University Museum Philadelphia. Ravilious, K. (2015). Iron from the Sky. Archaeology, March/April, 36-39.
Redford, A. F. (2006). Theban Tomb No. 188 (The Tomb of Parennefer): A Case Study of Tomb Reuse in the Theban Necropolis. Pennsylvania: Ph. D. Dissertation.
Rehren, Th., Belgya, T., Jambon, A. i in. (2013). 5000 years old Egyptian iron beads, made from hammered meteoritic iron. Journal of Archaeological Science, 40, 4788-4792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.002
Reisner, G. A. (1910). Archaeological Survey of Nubia. Report for 1907-1908 1. Cairo: National Printing Department.
Richardson, H. R. (1934). Iron, Prehistoric and Ancient. American Journal of Archaeology, 38(4), 555-583. Roth, A. M. (1992). The psS-kf and the 'Opening of the Mouth' Ceremony - A Ritual of Birth and Rebirth. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 78, 113-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/030751339207800107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3822068
Rzepka, S. (2009). Tell el-Retaba 2007-2008. Ägypten und Levante, 19, 241-280. https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL19s241 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL19s241
Rzepka, S. i in. (2017). From Hyksos Tombs to Late Period Tower Houses Tell el-Retaba - Seasons 2015-2016. Ägypten und Levante, 27, 19-85. https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL27s19 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL27s19
Rzepka S. i in. (2017). Tell el Retaba season 2016. Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean, 26(1), 109-135. https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.1771 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0012.1771
Sassoon, H. (1963). Early Sources of Iron in Africa. The South African Archaeological Bulletin, 18(72), 176-180. https://doi.org/10.2307/3886451 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3886451
Schorsch, D., Wypyski, M. T. (2009). Seth, Figure of Mystery. Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt, 45, 177-200.
Serneels, V., Fluzin, Ph. (2001). Du mineral à l'objet en fer. Apport de L'Archeometrie. Mediterranean Archaeology 14. The Origin of Iron Metallurgy: Proceedings of the First International Colloquium on the Archaeology of Africa and the Mediterranean Basin held at the Museum of Natural History in Geneva 4-7 June 1999 (s. 25-38).
Sethe, K. (1907). Urkunden des ägyptischen Altertums. IV. Urkunden der 18. Dynastie. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrischs'sche Buchhandlung.
Shaw, I. (2001). Minerals. W: D. B. Redford (red.), The Oxford Encyclopedia od Ancient Egypt. T. 2 (s. 415-419). Oxford: Oxford University Press,.
Sherratt, S. (1994). Commerce, iron and ideology: Metallurgical innovation in 12th-11th century Cyprus. W: V. Karageorghis (red.), Cyprus in the 11th century B.C.: proceedings of the international symposium organized by the Archaeological Research Unit of the University of Cyprus and The Anastasios G. Leventis Foundation, Nicosia 30-31 October, 1993 (s. 59-106). Athens.
Smith, S. T. (2007). Death at Tombos: Pyramids, Iron and Rise of the Napatan Dynasty. Sudan & Nubia. The Sudan Archaeological Research Society, 11, 2-14.
Snodgrass, A. (1980). Iron and Early Metallurgy in the Mediterranean. W: Th. A. Wertime, J. D. Muhly (red.), The Coming of the Age of Iron (s. 335-374). New Heaven: Yale University Press.
Socha, K., Suliga, I., Krawczyk, H. (2014). Meteoryty - najstarszy materiał do wytwarzania narzędzi żelaznych? Acta Societatis Metheoriricae Polonorum, 5, 104-114.
Stech-Wheeler, T. i in. (1981). Iron at Taanach and Early Iron Metallurgy in the Eastern Mediterranean. American Journal of Archaeology, 85(3), 245-268. https://doi.org/10.2307/504169 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/504169
Stevenson, A. (2009). The Predynastic cemetery el-Gerzeh. Social Identities and Mortuary Practices. Leuven: Peeters Publishers & Department of Oriental Studies Bondgenotenlaan 153.
Thomas, R. (2017). Tools and weapons. W: A. Villing, M. Bergeron, G. Bourogiannia, A. Johnston, F. Leclère, A. Masson, R. I. Thomas (red.), Naukratis: Greeks in Egypt. British Museum Online Research Catalogue 2013-2019 (s. 1-27). London.
Tosson, S., El-Mahdy, O. R., Saad, N. A. (1974). Differential thermal and thermogravimetric analyses of the Bahariya iron ore deposits, Egypt. Bulletin de la Société française deMinéralogie et de Cristallographie, 97, 27-39. https://doi.org/10.3406/bulmi.1974.6912 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/bulmi.1974.6912
Török, L. (1997). The Kingdom of Kush: Handbook of the Napatan-Meroitic Civilization. Handbuch der Orientalistik. Erste Abteilung, Nahe und der Mittlere Osten, 31, 342-408. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004294011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004294011
Trigger, B. G. (1969). The Myth of Meroe and the African Iron Age. African Historical Studies, 2(1), 23-50. https://doi.org/10.2307/216325 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/216325
Tylecote, R. F. (1977). Iron working at Meroe. Sudan, W: A. Ohrenberger, K. Kaus (red.), Wissenschaftliche Arbeiten aus dem Burgenland. T. 59 (s. 157-171). Eisenstadt.
Tylecote, R. F. (1981). From pot bellows to Tuyeres. Levant, 13, 107-118. https://doi.org/10.1179/lev.1981.13.1.107 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1179/lev.1981.13.1.107
Valloggia, M. (2001). La Maitrise du Fer en Egypte. Entre Traditions indigenes et Importations. Mediter- ranean Archaeology 14. The Origins of Iron Metallurgy, 195-204.
Villing, A. (2015). Egyptian-Greek exchange in the Late Period the view from Nokradj-Naukratis. W: D. Robinson, F. Goddio (red.), Thonis Heracleion in Context. The Maritime Economy of the Egyptian Late Period (s. 229-247). Oxford.
Vittmann, G. (2003). Ägypten und die Fremden im ersten vorchristlichen Jahrtausend. Mainz am Rhein: Phillip von Zabern.
Wainwright, G. A. (1912a). The Iron Beads. W: W. M. F. Petrie, G. A. Wainwright (red.), The Labyrinth, Gerzeh and Mazghuneh (s. 15-19). London: School of Archaeology in Egypt.
Wainwright, G. A. (1912b). Pre-Dynastic Iron Beads in Egypt. Revue Archéologique, Quatrième Série, 19, 255-259.
Wainwright, G. A. (1932). Iron in Egypt. The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology, 18, 3-15. Wainwright, G. A. (1936). The Coming of Iron. Antiquity, 10(37), 5-24. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00011182 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00011182
Wainwright, G. A. (1945). Iron in the Napatan and Meroitic ages. Sudan Notes and Records, 26(1), 5-36. Waldbaum, J. C. (1978). From Bronze to Iron, Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology. T. 65. Göteborg: Paul Aströms Förlag.
Wason, C. R. (1978). Iron and steel. Acta Antiqua, 26, 269-274.
Wertime, Th. A. (1973). The Beginnings of Metallurgy: A New Look. Science. New Series, 182(4115), 875-887. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.182.4115.875 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.182.4115.875
Williams, A. R., Maxwell-Hyslop, K. R. (1976). Ancient Steel from Egypt. Journal of Archaeological Science, 3, 283-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(76)90066-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0305-4403(76)90066-2
Winlock, H. E. (1921). The Egyptian Expedition 1920-1921: III Excavation at Thebes. Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 16/11. T. 2: Egyptian Expedition for MCMXX-MCMXXI, 29-53. https://doi.org/10.2307/3254486 DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/3254486
Wuttmann, M. (2001). La Metallurgie du Fer dans L'Egypte Ancienne. Mediterranean Archaeology, 14. The Origins of Iron Metallurgy, 205-207.
Yakubovich, I., Valério, M. (2010). Semitic Word for Iron as Anatolian Loanword. W: Исследования по лингвистике и семиотике: Сборник статей к юбилею Вяч. Вс. Иванова (s. 108-116). Москва: Языки славянских культур.
Yalçın, Ü. (2005). Zum Eisen der Hethiter. W: Ü. Yalçın, C. Pulak, R. Slotta (red.), Das Schiff von Ulubu- run - Welthandel vor 3000 Jahren (s. 493-502). Bochum: Deutschen Bergbau - Museum Bochum.
Zimmermann, J. L. (2001). La Maitrise Egeenne Du Fer (XII E -X E S. AV. J.-C.) Un Progres Technique Ou Une Necessite Economique. Mediterranean Archaeology. The Origins of Iron Metallurgy, 14, 111-123.
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Mateusz Napierała
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.