Natura i charakterystyka bogów w mitologii
PDF (English)

Słowa kluczowe

classical mythology
Greek mythology
Roman mythology
gods
divine
Abrahamic God
humans
overview
teaching of mythology

Jak cytować

Bär , S. (2020). Natura i charakterystyka bogów w mitologii. Symbolae Philologorum Posnaniensium Graecae Et Latinae, 30, 7–46. https://doi.org/10.14746/sppgl.2020.XXX.1

Abstrakt

This article is intended for students and teachers of classical mythology. It gives an overview of the nature and the characteristics of the gods in Greek and Roman mythology, explaining what the Greek and Roman gods are and what they are not. Furthermore, the relationship between gods and humans in classical mythology is discussed.

https://doi.org/10.14746/sppgl.2020.XXX.1
PDF (English)

Bibliografia

Primary sources (editions, translations and commentaries)

Anthology of Classical Myth: Primary Sources in Translation. Ed., tr. by S. M. Trzaskoma, R. S. Smith, and S. Brunet. 2nd rev. ed. 2016. Indianapolis and Cambridge.

Aristophanes. Birds: Edited with Introduction and Commentary. Student Edition. Ed., comm. by N. Dunbar. 1998. Oxford.

Early Greek Mythography. Ed., comm. by R. Fowler. 2 vols. 2013. Oxford.

Euripides. Hippolytus. Ed., tr., comm. by M. R. Halleran. 1995. Warminster.

Gods, Heroes, and Monsters: A Sourcebook of Greek, Roman, and Near Eastern Myths in Translation. Ed., tr. by C. López-Ruiz. 2014. New York and Oxford.

Hesiod. Theogony. Edited with Prolegomena and Commentary. Ed., comm. by M. L. West. 1966. Oxford.

Homer. Iliad: The Basel Commentary. Book III. Comm. by M. Krieter-Spiro. Transl. by B. W. Millis and S. Strack. 2015. Boston and Berlin (German original: 2009. Berlin and New York).

Homer. Iliad: The Basel Commentary. Book XIV. Comm. by M. Krieter-Spiro. Transl. by B. W. Millis and S. Strack. 2018. Boston and Berlin (German original: 2015. Berlin and Boston).

Homer. The Iliad: Books I–XII. Ed., comm. by M. M. Willcock. 1978. London.

The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite and Related Texts: Text, Translation and Commentary. Ed., tr., comm. by S. D. Olson. 2012. Berlin and Boston.

The Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite: Introduction, Text, and Commentary. Ed., comm. by A. Faulkner. 2008. Oxford.

The Homeric Hymn to Demeter: Translation, Commentary, and Interpretive Essays. Ed., tr., comm. by H. P. Foley. 1994. Princeton.

The Homeric Hymn to Demeter. Ed., comm. by N. J. Richardson. 2nd rev. ed. 1978. Oxford.

The Homeric Hymn to Hermes: Introduction, Text and Commentary. Ed., comm. by A. Vergados. 2013. Berlin and Boston.

Xenophanes of Colophon. Fragments: A Text and Translation. Ed., tr., comm. by J. H. Lesher. 1992. Toronto, Buffalo and London.

Secondary sources

Abrantes 2019: Abrantes, M. C. 2019. “A pietà de Mémnon e seu impacto na arte cristã. The pietà of Memnon and its impact in Christian art.” Boletim de estudos clássicos 64: 113–128.

Adams 1982: Adams, J. N. 1982. The Latin Sexual Vocabulary. London: Duckworth.

Alden 2000: Alden, M. 2000. Homer Beside Himself: Para-Narratives in the Iliad. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Arterbury 2005: Arterbury, A. E. 2005. Entertaining Angels: Early Christian Hospitality and its Mediterranean Setting. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press.

Barthell 1971: Barthell, E. E. 1971. Gods and Goddesses of Ancient Greece. Coral: University of Miami Press.

Baumbach and Rudolph 2014: Baumbach, M., and A. Rudolph. 2014. “Helping Zeus by Tricking him? Prometheus and the Poetics of Succession in Hesiod’s Theogony 538–541.” Antike & Abendland 60: 21–36.

Bell 1991: Bell, R. E. 1991. Women of Classical Mythology: A Biographical Dictionary. Santa Barbara, Denver and Oxford: ABC-CLIO.

Bies 1999: Bies, W. 2010. “Mythologie.” EM 9: 1073–1086.

Bloch 2011: Bloch, N. 2011. Patterns of Rape in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. MA Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder.

Blundell 1986: Blundell, S. 1986. The Origins of Civilization in Greek and Roman Thought. London, Sydney and Dover: Croom Helm.

Bolchazy 1978: Bolchazy, L. J. 1978. “From Xenophobia to Altruism: Homeric and Roman Hospitality.” The Ancient World 1: 45–64.

Bowra 1952: Bowra, C. M. 1952. Heroic Poetry. London: Macmillan.

Bremmer 1999: Bremmer, J. N. 1999. Greek Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Bremmer and Erskine 2010: Bremmer, J. N., and A. Erskine (eds.). 2010. The Gods of Ancient Greece: Identities and Transformations. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Bremmer and Horsfall 1987: Bremmer, J. N., and N. M. Horsfall. 1987. Roman Myth and Mythography. London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies.

Burkert 1983 [1972]: Burkert, W. 1983 [1972]. Homo Necans: The Anthropology of Ancient Greek Sacrificial Ritual and Myth. Transl. by P. Bing. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press (German original: Homo Necans: Interpretationen altgriechischer Opferriten und Mythen. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter).

Burkert 1985 [1977]: Burkert, W. 1985 [1977]. Greek Religion. Transl. by J. Raffan. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press (German original: Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer).

Burkert 1997: Burkert, W. 1997. “From epiphany to cult statue.” In What is a God? Studies in the nature of Greek divinity. Ed. by A. B. Lloyd, 15–34. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales.

Burkert 2011: Burkert, W. 2011. Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassischen Epoche. 2nd rev. ed. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer.

Burkhart 1999: Burkhart, D. 1999. “Mythos.” EM 9: 1092–1104.

Buxton 1980: Buxton, R. G. A. 1980. “Blindness and Limits: Sophokles and the Logic of Myth.” The Journal of Hellenic Studies 100: 22–37.

Buxton 2004: Buxton, R. G. A. 2004. The Complete World of Greek Mythology. London: Thames & Hudson.

Calame 2007: Calame, C. 2007. “Greek Myth and Greek Religion.” In The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology. Ed. by R. D. Woodard, 259–285. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Cameron 2004: Cameron, A. 2004. Greek Mythography in the Roman World. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Campbell 2006: Campbell, G. L. 2006. Strange Creatures: Anthropology in Antiquity. London: Duckworth.

Campbell 2002 [1986]: Campbell, J. 2002 [1986]. The Inner Reaches of Outer Space: Metaphor as Myth and as Religion. Novato: New World Library (originally published New York: Alfred van der Marck).

Clarke 1998: Clarke, J. R. 1998. Looking at Lovemaking: Constructions of Sexuality in Roman Art 100 B.C.–250 A.D. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.

Clauss, Cuypers and Kahane 2016: Clauss, J. J., M. P. Cuypers, and A. Kahane (eds.). 2016. The Gods of Greek Hexameter Poetry: From the Archaic Age to Late Antiquity and Beyond. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Cook 1914, 1925, 1940: Cook, A. B. 1914, 1925, 1940. Zeus: A Study in Ancient Religion. 3 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Curran 1978: Curran, L. C. 1978. “Rape and Rape Victims in the Metamorphoses.” Arethusa 11: 213–241.

Deacy 2018: Deacy, S. 2018. “Why Does Zeus Rape? An Evolutionary Psychological Perspective.” In Violence in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. Ed. by M. C. Pimentel and N. S. Rodrigues, 103–116. Leuven, Paris and Bristol CT: Peeters.

Deacy and Pierce 2002: Deacy, S., and K. F. Pierce (eds.). 2002. Rape in Antiquity. London: The Classical Press of Wales.

Dixon-Kennedy 1998: Dixon-Kennedy, M. 1998. Encyclopedia of Greco-Roman Mythology. Santa Barbara, Denver and Oxford: ABC-CLIO.

Doty 22000: Doty, W. G. 2000. Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rituals. 2nd rev. ed. Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press.

Dowden and Livingstone 2011: Dowden, K., and N. Livingstone (eds.). 2011. A Companion to Greek Mythology. Malden, Oxford and Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

EM: [Editorial collective]. 1977–2010. Enzyklopädie des Märchens: Handwörterbuch zur historischen und vergleichenden Erzählforschung. 13 vols. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter.

Faulkner 2016: Faulkner, A. 2016. “The Gods in the Narratives of the Homeric Hymns.” In The Gods of Greek Hexameter Poetry: From the Archaic Age to Late Antiquity and Beyond. Ed. by J. J. Clauss, M. P. Cuypers, and A. Kahane, 32–42. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag.

Frazer [ed. Fraser] 1994: Frazer, Sir J. G. 1994. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. New abridgement from the 2nd and 3rd ed. Ed. by R. Fraser. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Friedländer 1907: Friedländer, P. 1907. Herakles: Sagengeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Berlin: Weidmann.

Fry 2017: Fry, S. 2017. Mythos: The Greek Myths Retold. Milton Keynes: Penguin.

Frye 1957: Frye, N. 1957. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.

Galinsky 1972: Galinsky, G. K. 1972. The Herakles Theme: The Adaptations of the Hero in Literature from Homer to the Twentieth Century. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Gantz 1993: Gantz, T. 1993. Early Greek Myth. 2 vols. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press.

Gentile 2011: Gentile, J. S. 2011. “Prologue: Defining Myth: An Introduction to the Special Issue on Storytelling and Myth.” Storytelling, Self, Society 7: 85–90.

Gloyn 2013: Gloyn, E. 2013. “Reading Rape in Ovid’s Metamorphoses: A Test-Case Lesson.” Classical World 106: 676–681.

Graf 1993 [1987]: Graf, F. 1993 [1987]. Greek Mythology: An Introduction. Transl. by T. Marier. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press (German original: Griechische Mythologie: Eine Einführung. Munich and Zurich: Artemis).

Grant 21995: Grant, M. 1995. Myths of the Greeks and Romans. 2nd rev. ed. New York et al.: Penguin.

Graves 21960: Graves, R. 1960. The Greek Myths. 2 vols. 2nd rev. ed. London et al.: Penguin.

Grethlein 2012: Grethlein, J. 2012. “Homer and Heroic History.” In Greek Notions of the Past in the Archaic and Classical Eras: History without Historians. Ed. by J. Marincola, L. Llewellyn-Jones, and C. Maciver, 14–36. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Griffin 1980: Griffin, J. 1980. Homer on Life and Death. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Griffiths 2011: Griffiths, A. 2011. “Myth in History.” In A Companion to Greek Mythology. Ed. by K. Dowden and N. Livingstone, 195–207. Malden, Oxford and Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell.

Grimal 1990 [1951]: Grimal, P. 1990 [1951]. The Penguin Dictionary of Classical Mythology. Transl. by A. R. Maxwell-Hyslop. London: Penguin (French original: Dictionnaire de la mythologie grecque et romaine. Paris: Presses Universitaires de France).

Guthrie 1957: Guthrie, W. K. C. 1957. In the Beginning: Some Greek views on the origins of life and the early state of man. Ithaca and New York: Cornell University Press.

Hansen 2004: Hansen, W. 2004. Handbook of Classical Mythology. Santa Barbara, Denver and Oxford: ABC-CLIO.

Hard 2004: Hard, R. 2004. The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose’s Handbook of Greek Mythology. London and New York: Routledge.

Hawes 2014: Hawes, G. 2014. Rationalizing Myth in Antiquity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Henrichs 2010: Henrichs, A. 2010. “What is a Greek God?” In The Gods of Ancient Greece: Identities and Transformations. Ed. by J. N. Bremmer and A. Erskine, 19–39. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Howe and Harrer 1929: Howe, G., and G. A. Harrer 1929. A Handbook of Classical Mythology. New York: F. S. Crofts.

Hunger 61974: Hunger, H. 1974. Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie: Mit Hinweisen auf das Fortwirken antiker Stoffe und Motive in der bildenden Kunst, Literatur und Musik des Abendlandes bis zur Gegenwart. 6th rev. ed. Hamburg: Rowohlt.

Jamme and Matuschek 2014: Jamme, C., and S. Matuschek. 2014. Handbuch der Mythologie. Darmstadt: Philipp von Zabern.

Jones 2007: Jones, P. 2007. Reading Ovid: Stories from the Metamorphōsēs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jourdain-Annequin 1989: Jourdain-Annequin, C. 1989. Héraclès aux portes du soir: Mythe et histoire. Paris: Les Belles Lettres.

Kaufmann 1968: Kaufmann, W. 1968. Tragedy and Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Kearns 2004: Kearns, E. 2004. “The Gods in the Homeric epics.” In The Cambridge Companion to Homer. Ed by R. Fowler, 59–73. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Keith 2000: Keith, A. M. 2000. Engendering Rome: Women in Latin Epic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kerényi 1966: Kerényi, K. 1966. Die Mythologie der Griechen. 2 vols. Munich: DTV.

Kirk 1974: Kirk, G. S. 1974. The Nature of Greek Myths. Middlesex et al.: Penguin.

Larson 2001: Larson, J. 2001. Greek Nymphs: Myth, Cult, Lore. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lendle 1957: Lendle, O. 1957. Die “Pandorasage” bei Hesiod. Textkritische und motivgeschichtliche Untersuchungen. Würzburg: Triltsch.

Lloyd-Jones 1971: Lloyd-Jones, H. 1971. The Justice of Zeus. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.

LSJ: Liddell, H. G., R. Scott and H. S. Jones. 1996. A Greek-English Lexicon. 9th ed., with a revised supplement. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

March 1987: March, J. R. 1987. The Creative Poet: Studies on the Treatment of Myths in Greek Poetry. London: University of London, Institute of Classical Studies.

March 1998: March, J. R. 1998. Cassell’s Dictionary of Classical Mythology. London: Cassell & Co.

March 2009: March, J. R. 2009. The Penguin Book of Classical Myths. London et al.: Penguin.

Marinatos and Shanzer 2004: Marinatos, N., and D. Shanzer (eds.). 2004. Divine Epiphanies in the Ancient World. Illinois Classical Studies 29.

Marks 2008: Marks, J. 2008. Zeus in the Odyssey. Washington, Cambridge MA and London: Harvard University Press.

McClure 2020: McClure, L. K. 2020. Women in Classical Antiquity: From Birth to Death. Hoboken and Medford: Wiley-Blackwell.

McLaughlin 1981: McLaughlin, J. D. 1981. “Who is Hesiod’s Pandora?” Maia 33: 17–18.

Moors 1982: Moors, K. F. 1982. Platonic Myth: An Introductory Study. Washington: University Press of America.

Morales 2007: Morales, H. 2007. Classical Mythology: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Morford and Lenardon 72003: Morford, M. P. O., and R. J. Lenardon. 2003. Classical Mythology. 7th rev. ed. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

OED: Oxford English Dictionary. Online version. Accessed 1 September 2020. https://www.oed.com.

Omitowoju 2002: Omitowoju, R. 2002. Rape and the Politics of Consent in Classical Athens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Osborn and Burgess 1998: Osborn, K., and D. Burgess. 1998. The Complete Idiot’s Guide to Classical Mythology. New York: alpha books.

Padilla 1998: Padilla, M. W. 1998. The Myths of Herakles in Ancient Greece. Lanham, New York and Oxford: University Press of America.

Petridou 2015: Petridou, G. 2015. Divine Epiphany in Greek Literature and Culture. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Platt 2011: Platt, V. 2011. Facing the Gods: Epiphany and Representation in Graeco-Roman Art, Literature and Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Pöge-Alder 1999: Pöge-Alder, K. 1999. “Mythologische Schule.” EM 9: 1086–1092.

Price and Kearns 2003: Price, S. R. F., and E. Kearns (eds.). 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Classical Myth and Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Purves 2004: Purves, A. 2004. “Topographies of Time in Hesiod.” In Time and Temporality in the Ancient World. Ed. by R. M. Rosen, 147–168. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

Quirini 1983: Quirini, B. Z. 1983. “ICHOR, ‘il Sangue’ degli Dèi.” Orpheus 4: 355–363.

Rabinowitz 2011: Rabinowitz, N. S. 2011. “Greek Tragedy: A Rape Culture?” EuGeStA 1: 1–21.

Richlin 1992: Richlin, A. 1992. “Reading Ovid’s Rapes.” In Pornography and Representation in Greece and Rome. Ed. by A. Richlin, 158–179. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Robson 2013: Robson, J. 2013. Sex and Sexuality in Classical Athens. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Room 1997: Room, A. 1997. Who’s Who in Classical Mythology. New York: Gramercy.

Roscher 1884–1937: Roscher, W. H. (ed.). 1884–1937. Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie. 6 vols. Leipzig: Teubner.

Rose 61958: Rose, H. J., 1958. A Handbook of Greek Mythology: Including Its Extension to Rome. 6th rev. ed. Frome and London: Methuen & Co.

Rüpke 2012: Rüpke, J. 2012. Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and Ritual Change. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Sailors 2007: Sailors, C. L. 2007. The Function of Mythology and Religion in Ancient Greek Society. MA Thesis, East Tennessee State University, Johnston City.

Schwab 1946 [1838–1840]: Schwab, G. 1946 [1838–1840]. Gods and Heroes: Myths and Epics of Ancient Greece. Transl. by O. Marx and E. Morwitz. New York: Pantheon (German original Die schönsten Sagen des klassischen Alterthums: Nach seinen Dichtern und Erzählern. 3 vols. Stuttgart: Liesching).

Segal 2004: Segal, R. 2004. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sissa and Detienne 2000 [1989]: Sissa, G., and Detienne, M. 2000 [1989]. The Daily Life of the Greek Gods. Transl. by J. Lloyd. Stanford: Stanford University Press (French original: La vie quotidienne des dieux grecs. Paris: Hachette).

Small 1949: Small, S. G. P. 1949. “On Allegory in Homer.” The Classical Journal 44: 423–430.

Sproul 1991: Sproul, B. C. 1991. Primal Myths: Creation Myths around the World. New York: HarperSanFrancisco.

Stafford 2005: Stafford, E. 2005. “Héraklès: encore et toujours le problème du heros-theos.” Kernos 18: 391–406.

Stafford 2010: Stafford, E., 2010. “Herakles between Gods and Heroes.” In The Gods of Ancient Greece: Identities and Transformations. Ed. by J. N. Bremmer and A. Erskine, 228–244. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Stafford 2012: Stafford, E. 2012. Herakles. London and New York: Routledge.

Stirrup 1977: Stirrup, B. E. 1977. “Techniques of Rape: Variety of Wit in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.” Greece & Rome 24: 170–184.

Stocking 2017: Stocking, C. H. 2017. The Politics of Sacrifice in Early Greek Myth and Poetry. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Strauss Clay 1983: Strauss Clay, J. 1983. The Wrath of Athena: Gods and Men in the Odyssey. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

Strauss Clay 2003: Strauss Clay, J. 2003. Hesiod’s Cosmos, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Stuttard 2016: Stuttard, D. 2016. Greek Mythology: A Traveller’s Guide from Mount Olympus to Troy. London: Thames & Hudson.

Stuttard 2019: Stuttard, D. 2019. Roman Mythology: A Traveller’s Guide from Troy to Tivoli. London: Thames & Hudson.

Tate 1934: Tate, J. 1934. “On the History of Allegorism.” Classical Quarterly 28: 105–114.

Tinkler 2018: Tinkler, K. 2018. The Abuse of Patriarchal Power in Rome: The Rape Narratives of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. MA Thesis, University of Canterbury.

Tripp 1974: Tripp, E. 1974. The Meridian Handbook of Classical Mythology. New York: New American Library.

Turkeltaub 2007: Turkeltaub, D. 2007. “Perceiving Iliadic Gods.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 103: 51–81.

Veyne 1988 [1983]: Veyne, P. 1988 [1983]. Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? An Essay on the Constitutive Imagination. Transl. by P. Wissing. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press (French original: Les Grecs ont-ils cru à leurs mythes? Essai sur l’imagination constituante. Paris: Éditions du Seuil).

Vidal-Naquet 1986 [1981]: Vidal-Naquet, P. 1986 [1981]. The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World. Transl. by A. Szegedy-Maszak. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press (French original: Le chasseur noir: Formes de pensées et formes de société dans le monde grec. Paris: La Découverte).

Von Fritz 1947: von Fritz, K. 1947. “Pandora, Prometheus, and the Myth of the Ages.” Review of Religion 11: 227–260.

Watkins 1970: Watkins, C. 1970. “Language of Gods and Language of Men: Remarks on Some Indo-European Metalinguistic Traditions.” In Myth and Law Among the Indo-Europeans: Studies in Indo-European Comparative Mythology. Ed. by J. Puhvel, 1–17. Berkeley, Los Angeles and London: University of California Press.

Whitmarsh 2015: Whitmarsh, T. 2015. Battling the Gods: Atheism in the Ancient World. New York and Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf.

Willcock 1964: Willcock, M. M. 1964. “Mythological Paradeigma in the Iliad.” Classical Quarterly 14: 141–154.

Wiseman 2004: Wiseman, T. P. 2004. The Myths of Rome. Exeter: University of Exeter Press.

Woodard 2007: Woodard, R. D. (ed.). 2007. The Cambridge Companion to Greek Mythology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Woodard 2013: Woodard, R. D. 2013. Myth, Ritual, and the Warrior in Roman and Indo-European Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Yasumura 2011: Yasumura, N. 2011. Challenges to the Power of Zeus in Early Greek Poetry. London et al.: Bloomsbury.

Zajko and Hoyle 2017: Zajko, V., and H. Hoyle (eds.). A Handbook to the Reception of Classical Mythology. Hoboken and Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.