Abstract
This paper offers a retrospective narrative review of research on L2 writing strategies and a prospective discussion of potential theoretical and pedagogical relevant lines of inquiry to be explored in future research agendas. The retrospective analysis will synthesize the main trends observed in the conceptualization of writing strategies as well as central directions followed in empirical research in the domain. The prospective discussion tries to advance research agendas on the basis of several observations about L2 writing that are presented as key points to be considered when analyzing existing or thinking about future research in the domain. Special mention will be made of future research avenues centrally concerned with theoretical and empirical questions on the manner in which strategic behavior during writing and during written corrective feedback processing may foster language learning. It will be suggested that following this route can result in interesting and profitable synergies between research on language learning strategies and recent SLA-oriented L2 writing research initiatives on the language learning potential associated with L2 writing.
Funding
The Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Research grant FFI2016-79763-P)
References
Abbulh, R. (2012). Using self-referential pronouns in writing: The effect of explicit instruction on L2 writers at two levels of proficiency. Language Teaching Research, 16(4), 501-518.
Akyel, A. (1994). First language use in EFL writing: Planning in Turkish vs. planning in English. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 169-196.
Beare, S., & Bourdages, J. (2007). Skilled writers’ generating strategies in L1 and L2: An exploratory study. In M. Torrance, L. Van Waes, & D. Galbraith (Eds.), Writing and cognition: Research and applications (pp. 151-161). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Bishop, G. (2000). Developing learner strategies in the use of dictionaries as a productive language learning tool. Language Learning Journal, 23, 58-62.
Bishop, G. (2001). Using quality and accuracy ratings to quantify the value added of a dictionary skills training course. Language Learning Journal, 24, 62-69.
Bitchener, J. (2012). A reflection on “the language learning potential” of written CF. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 348-363.
Bitchener, J., & Storch N. (2016). Written corrective feedback for L2 development. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Bosher, S. (1998). The composing processes of three Southeast Asian writers at the post-secondary level: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 205-241.
Byrnes, H., & Manchón, R. M. (Eds.). (2014). Task-based language learning: Insights from and for L2 writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Casanave. C. (2017). Epilogue. In In J. Bitchener, N. Stroch, & Wette, R. (Eds), Teaching writing for academic purposes to multilingual students: Instructional approaches (pp. 203-215). London: Routledge.
Chamot, A. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 25, 112-130.
Cheng, Y-S. (2004). A measure of second language writing anxiety: Scale development and preliminary validation. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 313-335.
Chenoweth, A. & Hayes, J. (2001). Fluency in writing: Generating text in L1 and L2. Written Communication, 18(1), 80-98.
Chien, S.-C. (2012). Students’ use of writing strategies and their English writing achievement in Taiwan. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 32(1), 93-112.
Ching, L. C. (2002). Strategy and self-regulation instruction as contributors to improving students’ cognitive model in an ESL program. English for Specific Purposes, 21, 261-289.
Csizér, K., & Tankó, G. (2015). English majors’ self-regulatory control strategy use in academic writing and its relation to L2 motivation. Applied Linguistics, 38(3), 1-20.
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second language proficiency. Language Learning, 39, 81-141.
Cumming, A. (Ed.). (2006). Goals for ESL writing improvement in ESL and university courses. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
De Silva, R. (2015). Writing strategy instruction: Its impact on writing in a second language for academic purposes. Language Teaching Research, 19(3), 301-323.
Devine, J., Railey, K., & Boshoff, P. (1993). The implications of cognitive models in L1 and L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 2(3), 203-225.
García-Hernández, J. (2017). Analysis of the effects of reformulation as a written corrective feedback technique in English with grade six pupils. Doctoral dissertation, University of Murcia, Spain.
García Hernández, J., Roca de Larios, J., & Coyle, Y. (2017). Reformulation as a problem-solving space for young EFL writers: A longitudinal study of language learning strategies. In M. P. García-Mayo (Ed.), Learning foreign languages in primary school. Research insights (pp. 193-222). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Hyland, K. (2015). Academic publishing: Issues and challenges in the construction of knowledge. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hyland, K. (2016a). Academic publishing and the myth of linguistic injustice. Journal of Second Language Writing, 31, 58-69.
Hyland, K. (2016b). Language myths and publishing mysteries: A response to Politzer-Ahles et al. Journal of Second Language Writing, 34, 9-11.
Kobayashi, H., & Rinnert, C. (1992). Effects of first language on second language writing: Translation versus direct composition. Language Learning, 42(2), 183-215.
Lei, X. (2008). Exploring a sociocultural approach to writing strategy research: Mediated actions in writing activities. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(4), 217-236.
Leki, I. (1995). Coping strategies of ESL students in writing tasks across the curriculum. TESOL Quarterly, 29(2), 235-260.
Leki, I. (2011). Learning to write in a second language. Multilingual graduates and undergraduates expanding genre repertoires. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language (pp. 85-109). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Leki, I., Cumming, A., & Silva, T. (2008). A synthesis of research on second language writing in English: 1980-2005. New York: Routledge.
Maartor, N., & Murat, M. (2013). Writing strategies use by ESL upper secondary school students. International Education Studies, 6(4), 47-55.
Macaro, E. (2006). Strategies for language learning and for language use: Revising the theoretical framework. Modern Language Journal, 90(3), 320-337
Macaro, E. (2014). Reframing task performance: The relationship between asks, strategic behavior, and linguistic knowledge in writing. In H. Byrnes & R. M. Manchón (Eds.), Task-based language learning: Insights from and for L2 writing (pp. 53-77). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Maier, P. (1992). Politeness strategies in business letters by native and non-native English speakers. English for Specific Purposes, 11(3), 189-205.
Manchón, R. M. (2001) Trends in the conceptualizations of second language composing strategies: A critical analysis. International Journal of English Studies, 1(2), 47-70.
Manchón, R. M. (Ed.). (2011). Learning-to-write and writing-to-learn in an additional language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Manchón, R. M. (2013). Writing. In F. Grosjean & L. Ping (Eds.), The psycholinguistics of bilingualism (pp. 100-115). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Manchón, R. M. (2014). The internal dimension of tasks: The interaction between task factors and learner factors in bringing about learning through writing. In H. Byrnes & R. M. Manchón (Eds.), Task-based language learning: Insights from and for L2 writing (pp. 27-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Manchón, R. M. (2016). Language and L2 writing: Learning to write and writing to learn in academic contexts. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of English for academic purposes (pp. 139-151). New York: Routledge.
Manchón, R. M. (2017). The multifaceted and situated nature of the interaction between language and writing in academic settings. Advancing research agendas. In J. Bitchener, N. Stroch, & R. Wette (Eds), Teaching writing for academic purposes to multilingual students: Instructional approaches (pp. 183-200). London: Routledge.
Manchón, R. M., & Roca de Larios, J. (2007a). On the temporal nature of planning in L1 and L2 composing. Language Learning, 27, 549-593.
Manchón, R. M., & Roca de Larios J. (2007b). Writing-to-learn in instructed language learning contexts. In E. A. Soler & M. P. S. Jordá (Eds.), Intercultural language use and language learning (pp. 101-121). Berlin: Springer.
Manchón, R. M., Roca de Larios, J. & Murphy, L. (2000). An approximation to the study of backtracking in L2 writing. Learning and Instruction, 10(1), 13-35.
Manchón, R. M., Roca de Larios, J., & Murphy, L. (2007). A review of writing strategies: Focus on conceptualizations and impact of the first language. In A. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 229-250). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Manchón, R. M., Roca de Larios, J. & Murphy, L. (2009). The temporal dimension and problem-solving nature of foreign language composing processes. Implications for theory. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching and research (102-124). Clevendon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Manchón, R. M., & Williams, J. (2016). L2 writing and SLA studies. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), The handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 567-586). Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
McMullen, M. G. (2009). Using language learning strategies to improve the writing skills of Saudi EFL students: Will it really work? System, 37, 418-433.
Nicolás Conesa, F., Roca de Larios, J., & Coyle, Y. (2014). Development of EFL students’ mental models of writing and their effects on performance. Journal of Second Language Writing, 24(1), 1-19.
Nguyen, L. T. C. & Gu, Y. (2013). Strategy-based instruction: A learner-focused approach to developing learner autonomy. Language Teaching Research, 17(1), 9-30.
Olson, C. B., & Land, R. (2007). A cognitive strategies approach to reading and writing. Instruction for English language learners in secondary schools. Research in the Teaching of English, 41(3), 269-302.
Ong, J. (2013). Discovery of ideas in second language writing task environment. System, 41(3), 529-542.
Ong, J. (2014). How do planning time and task conditions affect metacognitive processes of L2 writers? Journal of Second Language Writing, 23, 17-30.
Ong, J., & Zhang, L. (2010). Effects of task complexity on the fluency and lexical complexity in EFL students’ argumentative writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19(4), 218-233.
Palfreyman, D. M., & van der Walt, C. (Eds.). (2017). Academic biliteracies: Multilingual repertoires in higher education. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Pecorari, D. (2016a). Intertextuality and plagiarism. In K. Hyland & P. Shaw (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of English for academic purposes (pp. 230-242). New York: Routledge.
Pecorari, D. (2016b). Writing from sources, plagiarm and texual borrowing. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), The handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 329-347). Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
Petric, B., & Czárl, B. (2003). Validating a writing strategy questionnaire. System, 31(2), 187-215.
Plo Alastrué, R., & Pérez-Llantada, C. (Eds.). (2015). English as a scientific and research language. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Plonsky, L. (2011). The effectiveness of second language strategy instruction: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 61(4), 993-1038.
Politzer-Ahles J. J., S., Holliday, J., Girolamo, T., Spychalska, M., & Berkson, K. H. (2016). Is linguistic injustice a myth? A response to Hyland (2016). Journal of Second Language Writing, 34, 3-8.
Porte, G. (1995). Estrategias de revisión en expresión escrita en lengua inglesa como segunda lengua. Doctoral dissertation, University of Granada, Spain.
Porte, G. (1996). When writing fails: How academic context and past learning experiences shape revision. System, 24(1), 107-116.
Porte, G. (1997). The etiology of poor second language writing: The influence of perceived teacher preferences on second language revision strategies. Journal of Second Language Writing, 6(1), 61-78.
Rahimi, M. (2013). Is training student reviewers worth its while? A study of how training influences the quality of students’ feedback and writing. Language Teaching Research, 17(1), 67-89.
Ransdell, S., Lavell, B., & Levy, M. (2002). The effects of training a good working memory strategy on L1 and L2 writing. In S. Ransdell & M. L. Barbier (Eds.), New directions for research in L2 writing (pp. 133-144). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Raoofi, S., Binandeh, M. &, Rahmani, S. (2017). An investigation into writing strategies and writing proficiency of university students. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8(1), 191-198.
Riazi, A. (1997). Acquiring disciplinary literacy: A social-cognitive analysis of text production and learning among Iranian graduate students of education. Journal of Second Language Writing, 6(2), 105-137.
Rinnert, C., & Kobayashi, H. (2016). Multicompetence and multilingual writing. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), The handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 365-386). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Robinson, P. (2011). Second language task complexity, the Cognition Hypothesis, language learning, and performance. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Second language task complexity. Researching the Cognition Hypothesis of language learning and performance (pp. 3-37). Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Roca de Larios, J. (2013). Second language writing as a psycholinguistic locus for L2 production and learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22(4), 444-445.
Roca de Larios, J., Coyle, Y., & Nicolás-Conesa, F. (2016). Focus on writers: Processes and strategies. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), The handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 267-286). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Roca de Larios, J., Marín, J., & Murphy, L. (2001). A temporal analysis of formulation processes in L1 and L2 writing. Language Learning, 51, 497-538.
Roca de Larios, J., Murphy, L., & Manchón, R. M. (1999). The use of restructuring strategies in EFL writing: A study of Spanish learners of English as a foreign language. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 13-44.
Roca de Larios, J., Murphy, L., & Marín, J. (2002). Critical examination of L2 writing process research. In S. Ransdell & M. Barbier (Eds), New directions for L2 writing research (pp. 11-48). Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Sasaki, M. (2000). Toward an empirical model of EFL writing processes: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9(3), 259-291.
Sasaki, M. (2004). A multiple‐data analysis of the 3.5‐year development of EFL student writers. Language Learning, 54(3), 525-582.
Sasaki, M. (2007). Effects of study-abroad experiences on EFL writers: A multiple-data analysis. Modern Language Journal, 91, 602-620.
Sasaki, M. (2009). Changes in EFL students’ writing over 3.5 years: A socio-cognitive account. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching, and researching (pp. 49-76). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Sasaki, M., & Hirose, K. (1996). Explanatory variables for EFL students’ expository writing. Language Learning, 46(1), 137-174.
Schoonen, R., van Gelderen, A., de Gloper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snelling, P., & Stevenson, M. (2003). First language and second language writing: The role of linguistic knowledge, speed of processing, and metacognitive knowledge. Language Learning, 54, 165-202.
Schoonen, R., Snellings, P., Stevenson, M., & Van Gelderen, A. (2009). Towards a blueprint of the foreign language writer: The linguistic and cognitive demands of foreign language writing. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching, and research (pp. 77-101). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Schoonen, R., van Gelderen, A., Stoel, R., Hulstijn, J., & De Glopper, K. (2011). Modeling the development of L1 and EFL writing proficiency of secondary-school students. Language Learning, 61, 31-79.
Sengupta, S. (2000). An investigation into the effects of revision strategy instruction on L2 secondary school learners. System, 28(1), 97-113.
Simeon, J. (2016). Learner writing strategies of Seychellois ESL (English as a second language) secondary school students. Language, Culture and Social Interaction, 8, 1-11.
Snellings, P., Van Gelderen, A., & De Glopper, K. (2004a). The effect of enhanced lexical retrieval on L2 writing: A classroom experiment. Applied Psycholinguistics, 55, 175-200.
Snellings, P., Van Gelderen, A., & De Glopper, K. (2004b). Validating a test of second language written lexical retrieval: A new measure of fluency in written language production. Language Testing, 21, 174-201.
Spack, R (1997). The acquisition of academic literacy in a second language. A longitudinal case study. Written Communication, 14(1), 3-62.
Stapleton, P. (2005). Using the Web as a research source: Implications for L2 academic writing. Modern Language Journal, 89(2), 177-189.
Stevenson, M., Schoonen, R., & De Glopper, K. (2006). Revising in two languages: A multi-dimensional comparison of online writing revisions in L1 and FL. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15(3), 201-233.
Storch, N. (2016). Collaborative writing. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), The handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 387-406). Berlin: de Gruyter Mouton.
Takagaki, T. (2003). The revision patterns and intentions in L1 and L2 by Japanese writers: A case study. TESL Canada Journal, 21(1), 22-37.
Teng, L. S., & Zhang, L. (2016). A questionnaire-based validation of multidimensional models of self-regulated learning strategies. Modern Language Journal, 100 (3), 674-701.
Thorson, H. (2000). Using computer to compare foreign and native language writing processes: A statistical and case study approach. Modern Language Journal, 84(2), 155-170.
Tillema, M. (2012). Writing in first and second language: Empirical studies on text quality and writing processes. Utrecht: LOT Dissertation Series.
Tillema, M., van den Bergh, H., Rijlaarsdam, G., & Sanders, T. (2011). Relating self reports of writing behavior and online task execution using a temporal model. Metacognition Learning, 6, 229-253
Van Gelderen, A., Oostdam, R., & Van Schooten, E. (2011). Does foreign language writing benefit from increased lexical fluency? Evidence from a classroom experiment. Language Learning, 61(1), 281-321.
Van Weijen, D. (2009). Writing processes, text quality, and task effects; Empirical studies in first and second language writing. Utrecht: LOT Dissertation Series.
Vergaro, C. (2004). Discourse strategies of Italian and English sales promotion letters. English for Specific Purposes, 23(2), 181-207.
Williams, J. (2012). The potential role(s) of writing in second language development. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21, 321-331.
Zainuddin, H., & Moore, R. A. (2003). Audience awareness in L1 and L2 composing of bilingual writers. TESL-EJ, 7(1). Retrieved from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej25/a2.html
Zhang, L. (2013). Second language writing as and for second language learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 446-447.
Zimmermann, R. (2000). L2 writing subprocesses: A model of formulating and empirical findings. Learning and Instruction, 10(1), 73-99.
License
1.1 The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person. The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
1.2. The Publisher warrants that is the owner of the PRESSto platform for open access journals, hereinafter referred to as the PRESSto Platform.
2. The Author grants the Publisher non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons.
3. The Author grants the Publisher permission to reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
4. The Author grants the Publisher permission to send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases.
5. The Author represents that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Publisher is entitled and obliged to:
5.1. allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made, based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Creative Commons sub-license or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons;
5.2. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.3. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
6. Because of the royalty-free provision of services of the Author (resulting from the scope of obligations stipulated in the present Agreement), the Author shall not be entitled to any author’s fee due and payable on the part of the Publisher (no fee or royalty is payable by the Publisher to the Author).
7.1. In the case of third party claims or actions for indemnity against the Publisher owing to any infractions related to any form of infringement of intellectual property rights protection, including copyright infringements, the Author is obliged to take all possible measures necessary to protect against these claims and, when as a result of legal action, the Publisher, or any third party licensed by the Publisher to use the Work, will have to abandon using the Work in its entirety or in part or, following a court ruling in a legal challenge, to pay damages to a third party, whatever the legal basis
7.2. The Author will immediately inform the Publisher about any damage claims related to intellectual property infringements, including the author’s proprietary rights pertaining to a copyrighted work, filed against the Author. of liability, the Author is obliged to redress the damage resulting from claims made by third party, including costs and expenditures incurred in the process.
7.3. To all matters not settled herein provisions of the Polish Civil Code and the Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act shall apply.