Keywords
speaking strategies
communicative task
immediate report
How to Cite
Number of views: 1633
Number of downloads: 861
Abstract
Although the ability to speak is usually seen as a key manifestation of learners’ ability in the target language they are attempting to master, research has not given ample attention to strategies that can be employed to enhance this skill. In fact, the bulk of such empirical investigations has mainly focused on communication strategies that are reactive devices, predominantly used to overcome difficulties in successful conveyance of meanings and messages, and even this line of inquiry has been neglected in recent years. The study reported in this paper aims to partially bridge this gap by examining the speaking strategies that advanced learners of English used in the performance of two communicative tasks, differing in the extent to which the participants were required to make a contribution to their successful completion. The data collected by means of open-ended questionnaires that were administered immediately after the completion of the two tasks yielded crucial insights into the nature of the speaking strategies and the ways in which the communicative goals inherent in task type influenced the choice of speaking strategies.
References
Benson, S., Fischer, D., Geluso, J., von Joo, L. (2013). Effects of communication strategy training on EFL students’ performance in small-group discussions. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 3, 245-259.
Bygate, M. (2002). Speaking. In R. B. Kaplan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of applied linguistics (pp. 27-38). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bygate, M. (2008). Oral second language abilities as expertise. In K. Johnson (Ed.), Expertise in second language learning and teaching (pp. 104-127). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Burns, A., & Seidlhofer, B. (2010). Speaking and pronunciation. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics (3rd ed., pp. 197-214). London: Hodder Education.
de Bot, K. (1992). A bilingual production model: Levelt’s “speaking” model adapted. Applied Linguistics, 13, 1-24.
Carson, J. G., & Longhini, A. (2002). Focusing on learning styles and strategies. A diary study in an immersion setting. Language Learning, 52, 401-438.
Cohen, A. D. (2012). L2 learner strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. II, pp. 681-698). London and New York: Routledge.
Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London and New York: Routledge.
Cohen, A. D., & Macaro, E. (Eds.). (2007). Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, A. D., & Olshtain, E. (1993). The production of speech acts by EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 33-56.
Cohen, A. D., & Wang, I. K.-H. (2018). Fluctuations in the functions of language learning strategies. System, 74, 169-182.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2010). Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 119-138). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2017). Knowledge and skill in ISLA. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 15-32). New York and London: Routledge.
Derwing, T. M. (2017). L2 fluency development. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 246-259). New York and London: Routledge.
Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definitions and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47, 173-210.
Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. M. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3-25). Bristol – Buffalo – Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Faucette, P. (2001). A pedagogical perspective on communication strategies: Benefits of training and an analysis of English language teaching materials. Second Language Studies, 19, 1-40.
Gregersen, T., & MacIntyre, P. M. (2014). Capitalizing on language learners’ individuality: From premise to practice. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Hsieh, A. F-Y. (2014). The effect of cultural background and language proficiency on the use of oral communication strategies by second language learners of Chinese. System, 45, 1-16.
Huang, X, -H., & van Naerssen, M. (1987). Learning strategies for oral communication. Applied Linguistics, 8, 287-307.
Izumi, S. (2003) Comprehension and production processes in second language learning: In search of the psycholinguistic rationale of the output hypothesis. Applied Linguistics, 24, 168-196.
Kasper, G., & Kellerman, E. (Ed.). (1997a). Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives. London: Longman.
Kasper, G., & Kellerman, E. (1997b). Introduction: Approaches to communication strategies. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 1-13). London: Longman.
Kawai, Y. (2008). Speaking and good language learners. In C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners (pp. 218-230). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: From intention to articulation. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Littlemore, J. (2001). An empirical study of the relationship between cognitive style and the use of communicative strategy. Applied Linguistics, 22, 241-265.
Majer, J. (2003). Interactive discourse in the foreign language classroom. Łódź: University of Łódź Press.
Mesgarshahr, A., & Abdollahzadeh, E. (2014). The impact of teaching communication strategies on EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4, 51-76.
Muranoi, H. (2007). Output practice in the L2 classroom. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 51-84). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nakahama, Y., Tyler, A., & van Lier, L. (2001). Negotiation of meaning in conversation and information gap activities: A comparative discourse analysis. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 377-405.
Nakatani, Y. (2005). The effects of awareness-raising training on oral communication strategy use. Modern Language Journal, 89, 76-91.
Nakatani, Y. (2006). Developing an oral communication strategy inventory. Modern Language Journal, 90, 151-168.
Nakatani, Y. (2010). Identifying strategies that facilitate EFL learners’ oral communication: A classroom study using multiple data collection procedures. Modern Language Journal, 94, 116-136.
Nakatani, Y., & Goh, C. (2007). A review of oral communication strategies: Focus on interactionist and psycholinguistic perspectives. In A. D. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 207-227). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Naughton, D. (2006). Cooperative strategy training and oral interaction: Enhancing small group communication in the language classroom. Modern Language Journal, 90, 169-194.
O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ortega, L. (2007). Meaningful L2 practice in foreign language classrooms. A cognitive-interactionist SLA perspective. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 180-207). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Oxford, R. L. (2011). Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Self-regulation in context. New York and London: Routledge.
Pawlak, M. (2004). Describing and researching interactive processes in the foreign language classroom. Konin: State School of Higher Education in Konin Press.
Pawlak, M. (2005). Investigating the effectiveness of training students in the use of communication strategies: Results of a study. IATEFL Research News, 16, 46-51.
Pawlak, M. (2006). The place of form-focused instruction in the foreign language classroom. Poznan – Kalisz: Adam Mickiewicz University Press.
Pawlak, M. (2009). Exploring the use of communication strategies in group work activities. In J. Arabski (Ed.), Multidisciplinary perspectives on second language acquisition and foreign language learning (pp. 60-76). Katowice: University of Silesia Press.
Pawlak, M. (2011). Instructed acquisition of speaking: Reconciling theory and practice. In M. Pawlak, E. Waniek-Klimczak, & J. Majer (Eds.), Speaking and instructed foreign language acquisition (pp. 3-23). Bristol – Buffalo – Toronto: Multilingual Matters.
Pawlak, M. (2014). Error correction in the foreign language classroom: Reconsidering the issues. Heidelberg – New York: Springer.
Pawlak, M. (2015). Advanced learners’ use of communication strategies in spontaneous language performance. In M. Pawlak & E. Waniek-Klimczak (Eds.), Issues in teaching, learning and testing speaking in a second language (pp. 121-141). Heidelberg – New York: Springer.
Pawlak, M. (2018). The use of pronunciation learning strategies in form-focused and meaning-focused activities: The impact of contextual and individual difference variables. In R. L. Oxford & C. M. Amerstorfer (Eds.), Language learning strategies and individual learner characteristics situating strategy use in diverse contexts (pp. 187-206). London: Bloomsbury.
Pickering, L. (2012). Second language speech production. In S. M. Gass & A. Mackey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 335-348). New York and London: Routledge.
Pietrzykowska, A. (2014). The relationship between learning strategies and speaking performance. In M. Pawlak, A. Mystkowska-Wiertelak, & J. Bielak (Eds.), Classroom-oriented research: Achievements and challenges (pp. 55-68). Heidelberg: Springer.
Shumin, K. (2002). Factors to consider: Developing adult EFL students’ speaking abilities. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching (pp. 204-211). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Suzuki, W. (2018). Negotiation of meaning versus negotiation of form. In T. Liontas (Ed.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching. London: Wiley – Blackwell. https://doi:10.1002/9781118784235.eelt0085
Tarone, E. (2005). Speaking in a second language. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 485-502). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Teng, H.-C. (2012). A study on the teachability of EFL communication strategies. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, 3566-3570.
Varela, E. (1999). Using learning strategy instruction to improve English language learners’ oral presentation skills in content-based ESL instruction. In R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Strategy research compendium: Language learning strategies in the context of autonomy (pp. 76-77). New York: Columbia University.
License
1.1 The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person. The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
1.2. The Publisher warrants that is the owner of the PRESSto platform for open access journals, hereinafter referred to as the PRESSto Platform.
2. The Author grants the Publisher non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons.
3. The Author grants the Publisher permission to reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
4. The Author grants the Publisher permission to send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases.
5. The Author represents that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Publisher is entitled and obliged to:
5.1. allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made, based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Creative Commons sub-license or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons;
5.2. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.3. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
6. Because of the royalty-free provision of services of the Author (resulting from the scope of obligations stipulated in the present Agreement), the Author shall not be entitled to any author’s fee due and payable on the part of the Publisher (no fee or royalty is payable by the Publisher to the Author).
7.1. In the case of third party claims or actions for indemnity against the Publisher owing to any infractions related to any form of infringement of intellectual property rights protection, including copyright infringements, the Author is obliged to take all possible measures necessary to protect against these claims and, when as a result of legal action, the Publisher, or any third party licensed by the Publisher to use the Work, will have to abandon using the Work in its entirety or in part or, following a court ruling in a legal challenge, to pay damages to a third party, whatever the legal basis
7.2. The Author will immediately inform the Publisher about any damage claims related to intellectual property infringements, including the author’s proprietary rights pertaining to a copyrighted work, filed against the Author. of liability, the Author is obliged to redress the damage resulting from claims made by third party, including costs and expenditures incurred in the process.
7.3. To all matters not settled herein provisions of the Polish Civil Code and the Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act shall apply.