Keywords
grammar learning strategies
Grammar Learning Strategies Inventory
validity
reliability
exploratory factor analysis
How to Cite
Number of views: 1555
Number of downloads: 894
Abstract
Despite all the progress that has been made in research on language learning strategies since the publication of Rubin’s (1975) seminal paper on good language learners, there are areas that have been neglected by strategy experts. Perhaps the most blatant manifestation of this neglect is the paucity of research into grammar learning strategies (GLS). The main premise of this paper is that for such research to gain momentum, it is to necessary to create valid and reliable data collection instruments that would enable tapping the use of different types of GLS. In line with this reasoning, the article reports a study that aimed to determine the psychometric properties of the Grammar Learning Strategy Inventory (GLSI), a tool constructed by Pawlak (2009b, 2013) on the basis of his classification of strategies for learning grammar in a second or foreign language. Exploratory factor analysis was also employed with the purpose of uncovering the underlying structure of strategic learning of grammar. The analysis provided evidence for largely satisfactory validity and reliability of the GLSI, indicating at the same time there is room for improvement, with concrete changes being possible after the instrument has been tested with a much larger sample.
Funding
The National Science Centre
Poland
Research project no. 2015/17/B/HS2/01704 (2016-2019)
References
Amerstorfer, C. M., & Oxford, R. L. (2018). Conclusion: Lessons learned and the future of situated learning strategies. In R. L. Oxford & C. M. Amerstorfer (Eds.), Language learning strategies and individual learner characteristics: Situating strategy use in diverse contexts. (pp. 287-297). London: Bloomsbury.
Anderson, N. J. (2005). L2 learning strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 757-771). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Cohen, A. D. (2012). L2 learner strategies. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (Vol. II, pp. 681-698). London and New York: Routledge.
Cohen, A. D. (2014). Strategies in learning and using a second language. London and New York: Routledge.
Cohen, A. D., & Griffiths, C. (2015). Revisiting LLS research 40 years later. TESOL Quarterly, 49, 414-429.
Cohen, A. D., & Macaro, E. (Eds.) (2007). Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cohen, A. D., & Pinilla-Herrera, A. (2010) Communicating grammatically: Constructing a learner strategies website for Spanish. In T. Kao & Y. Lin (Eds.), A new look at language teaching and testing: English as subject and vehicle (pp. 63-83). Taipei, Taiwan: The Language Training and Testing Center.
Cohen, A. D., & Wang, I. K. -H. (2018). Fluctuations in the functions of language learning strategies. System, 74, 169-182.
DeKeyser, R. (2007). The future of practice. In R. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp. 287-304). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. (2010). Cognitive-psychological processes in second language learning. In M. H. Long & C. J. Doughty (Eds.), The handbook of language teaching (pp. 117-138). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
DeKeyser, R. (2015). Skill-acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten & J. Williams (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (2nd ed., pp. 94-122). London: Routledge.
DeKeyser, R. (2017). Knowledge and skill in SLA. In S. Loewen & M. Sato (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of instructed second language acquisition (pp. 15-32). New York and London: Routledge.
Doughty, C. J., & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in focus on form. In C. J. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 197-261). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methodologies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual differences in second language learning. In C. J. Dough¬ty, & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 589-630). Oxford, Blackwell.
Droździał-Szelest, K. (1997). Language learning strategies in the process of acquiring a foreign language. Poznań: Motivex.
Ellis, R. (1997). SLA research and language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2002). The place of grammar instruction in the second/foreign language curriculum. In E. Hinkel & S. Fotos (Eds.), New perspectives on grammar teaching in second language classroom (pp. 17-34). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Ellis, R. (2005). Measuring implicit and explicit knowledge of a second language: A psychometric study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 27, 141-172.
Ellis, R. (2009). Implicit and explicit learning, knowledge and instruction. In R. Ellis, S. Loewen, C. Elder, R. M. Erlam, J. Philp, & H. Reinders (Eds.), Implicit and explicit knowledge in second language learning, testing and teaching (pp. 3-25). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Fotos, S. (1998). Shifting the focus from forms to form in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 52, 301-307.
Grenfell, M. J., & Harris, V. (2017). Language learner strategies contexts, Issues and applications in second language learning and teaching. London: Bloomsbury.
Griffiths, C. (2003a). Patterns of language learning strategy use. System, 31, 367-383.
Griffiths, C. (2003b). Language learning strategy use and proficiency: The relationship between patterns of reported language learning strategy (LLS) use by speakers of other languages (SOL) and proficiency with implications for the teaching/learning situation. Doctoral dissertation, University of Auckland, New Zealand. Retrieved from http:// hdl.handle.net/2292/9
Griffiths, C. (2013). The strategy factor in successful language learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Griffiths, C. (2018). The strategy factor in successful language learning: The tornado effect. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Griffiths, C., & Oxford, R. L. (2014). The twenty-first century landscape of language learning strategies: Introduction to this special issue. System, 43, 1-10.
Gürata, A. (2008). The grammar learning strategies employed by Turkish university preparatory school EFL students. MA thesis, Bilkent University, Ankara.
Kemp, C. (2007). Strategic processing in grammar learning: Do multilinguals use more strategies? International Journal of Multilingualism, 4(4), 241-261.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching grammar: From grammar to grammaring. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
Long, M. (1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (Eds.), Foreign language research in cross-cultural perspective (pp. 39-52). Amsterdam: John Benjamin.
Mizumoto, A., & Takeuchi, O. (2018). Modelling a prototypical use of language learning strategies: Decision tree-based methods in multiple contexts. In R. L. Oxford & C. M. Amerstorfer (Eds.), Language learning strategies and individual learner characteristics situating strategy use in diverse contexts (pp. 99-122). London: Bloomsbury.
Morales, M., & Smith, D. (2008). Mental images in the acquisition of L2 grammar. The case of “ser” and “estar” in Spanish. Revista Nebrija de Linguistica Aplicada a la Ensenanza de Lenguas, 2, 1-24.
Murray, B. (2010). Students’ language learning strategy use and achievement in the Korean as a foreign language classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 43, 624-634.
Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. (2008). The use of grammar learning strategies among secondary school students. In M. Pawlak (Ed.), Investigating English language learning and teaching (pp. 139-148). Poznań – Kalisz: Adam Mickiewicz University Press.
Naiman, N., Fröhlich, M., Stern, H. H., & Todesco, A. (1978). The good language learner: A report. Research in Education Series 7. Ontario: The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., Stewner-Manzanaraes, G., Küpper, L., & Russo, R. (1985). Learning strategy applications with students of English as a second language. TESOL Quarterly, 19, 557-584.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Oxford, R. L. (2011). Teaching and researching language learning strategies. Harlow: Pearson Education.
Oxford, R. L. (2017). Teaching and researching language learning strategies: Self-regulation in context. New York and London: Routledge.
Oxford, R. L., & Amerstorfer, C. M. (Eds.) (2018). Language learning strategies and individual learner characteristics: Situating strategy use in diverse contexts. London: Bloomsbury.
Oxford, R. L. & Burry-Stock, J. A. (1995). Assessing the use of language learning strategies worldwide with the ESL/EFL version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL). System, 23, 1-23.
Oxford. R. L., Lee, R. L., & Park, G. (2007). L2 grammar strategies: The Second Cinderella and beyond. In A. D. Cohen & E. Macaro (Eds.), Language learner strategies: Thirty years of research and practice (pp. 117-139). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Oxford, R. L., & Nyikos, M. (1989). Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students. Modern Language Journal, 73, 291-300.
Pawlak, M. (2006). The place of form-focused instruction in the foreign language classroom. Poznan – Kalisz: Adam Mickiewicz University Press.
Pawlak, M. (2008). Advanced learners’ use of strategies for learning grammar: A diary study. In M. Pawlak (Ed.), Investigating English language learning and teaching (pp. 109-125). Poznań – Kalisz: Adam Mickiewicz University Press.
Pawlak, M. (2009a). Grammar learning strategies and language attainment: Seeking a relationship. Research in Language, 7, 43-60.
Pawlak, M. (2009b). Investigating grammar learning strategies: In search of appropriate research tools. Paper presented at the 19th Conference of the European Second Language Association, Cork, 2-5 September.
Pawlak, M. (2011a). Research into language learning strategies: Taking stock and looking ahead. In J. Arabski & A. Wojtaszek (Eds.), Individual differences in SLA (pp. 17-37). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Pawlak, M. (2011b). Investigating the link between the use of grammar learning strategies and language attainment. Paper presented at an international conference Topics in applied linguistics, Opole, 14-16 November.
Pawlak, M. (2012). Instructional mode and the use of grammar learning strategies. In M. Pawlak (Ed.), New perspectives on individual differences in language learning and teaching (pp. 263-287). Heidelberg – New York: Springer.
Pawlak, M. (2013). Researching grammar learning strategies: Combining the macro- and micro-perspective. In Ł. Salski, W. Szubko-Sitarek, & J. Majer (Eds.), Perspectives on foreign language learning (pp. 191-220). Łódź, Poland: University of Łódź Press.
Pawlak, M. (2014). Error correction in the foreign language classroom: Reconsidering the issues. Heidelberg – New York: Springer.
Rubin, J. (1975). What the “good language learner” can teach us. TESOL Quarterly, 9, 41-51.
Sarıçoban, A. (2005). Learner preferences in the use of strategies in learning grammar. Atatürk University Journal of the Institute of Social Sciences, 5, 319-330.
Solak, C., & Cakir, R. (2015). Language learning strategies of language e-learners in Turkey. E-Learning and Digital Media, 12, 107-120.
Tilfarlioğlu, Y. (2005). An analysis of the relationship between the use of grammar learning stra¬tegies and student achievement at English preparatory classes. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1, 155-169.
Trendak, O. (2015). Exploring the role of strategic intervention in form-focused instruction. Heidelberg – New York: Springer.
License
1.1 The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person. The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
1.2. The Publisher warrants that is the owner of the PRESSto platform for open access journals, hereinafter referred to as the PRESSto Platform.
2. The Author grants the Publisher non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons.
3. The Author grants the Publisher permission to reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
4. The Author grants the Publisher permission to send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases.
5. The Author represents that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Publisher is entitled and obliged to:
5.1. allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made, based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Creative Commons sub-license or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons;
5.2. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.3. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
6. Because of the royalty-free provision of services of the Author (resulting from the scope of obligations stipulated in the present Agreement), the Author shall not be entitled to any author’s fee due and payable on the part of the Publisher (no fee or royalty is payable by the Publisher to the Author).
7.1. In the case of third party claims or actions for indemnity against the Publisher owing to any infractions related to any form of infringement of intellectual property rights protection, including copyright infringements, the Author is obliged to take all possible measures necessary to protect against these claims and, when as a result of legal action, the Publisher, or any third party licensed by the Publisher to use the Work, will have to abandon using the Work in its entirety or in part or, following a court ruling in a legal challenge, to pay damages to a third party, whatever the legal basis
7.2. The Author will immediately inform the Publisher about any damage claims related to intellectual property infringements, including the author’s proprietary rights pertaining to a copyrighted work, filed against the Author. of liability, the Author is obliged to redress the damage resulting from claims made by third party, including costs and expenditures incurred in the process.
7.3. To all matters not settled herein provisions of the Polish Civil Code and the Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act shall apply.