Keywords
communication strategies
strategic competence
Communication Apprehension
Self-perceived Communicative Competence
How to Cite
Number of views: 1299
Number of downloads: 823
Abstract
One of the pedagogical implications of the research on the Willingness to Communicate (WTC) might be to propose practical ways of making language learners more willing to communicate in the classroom. This study investigated the impact of teaching communication strategies (CSs) on Iranian EFL learners’ WTC. To this end, 8 intact classes were included as the experimental and control groups. The control group underwent regular language instruction, while the experimental group received the treatment (i.e., communication strategy training). The self-report measurement of WTC (MacIntyre, Baker, Clément, & Conrad, 2001) was done before (pre-test) and after the treatment (post-test). The results of the independent-samples t test showed that the degree of WTC of the treatment group was significantly higher compared with that of the control group. It was concluded that teaching CSs helps learners become more willing to communicate in the classroom.References
Anderson, J. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Barraclough, A. R., Christophel, M. D., &McCroskey, J. C. (1988). Willingness to communicate: A cross-cultural investigation. Communication Research Reports, 5(2), 187-192.
Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication strategies. Oxford: Blackwell.
Boers, F., Eyckmans, J., Kappel, J., Stenger, H., & Demecheleer, M. (2006). Formulaic sequences and perceived oral proficiency: Putting a lexical approach to the test. Language Teaching Research (10)3, 245-261.
Brett, A. G. (2001). Teaching communication strategies to beginners. Language Learning Journal, 24, 53-61. doi:10.1080/09571730185200251
Brown, D. H. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach toward language pedagogy (2nd ed.). New York: Pearson Education.
Burgoon, J. K. (1976). The unwillingness to communicate scale: Development and validation. Communication Monographs , 43, 60-69.
Burroughs, N. F., Marie, V., & McCroskey, J. C. (2003). Relationships of self- perceived communication competence and communication apprehension with willingness to communicate: A comparison with first and second languages in Micronesia. Communication Research Reports, 20(3), 230-239.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1(1), 1-47.
Cao, Y. (2011). Investigating situational willingness to communicate within second language classrooms from an ecological perspective. System, 39(4), 468-479.
Cao, Y., & Philp, J. (2006). Interactional context and willingness to communicate: A comparison of behavior in whole class, group and dyadic interaction. System, 34, 480-493. doi:10.1016/j.system.2006.05.002
Clément, R. (1980). Ethnicity, contact, and communicative competence in a second language. In H. Giles, W.P. Robinson, & P.M. Smith (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspective (pp. 147-154). Oxford: Pergamon.
Clément, R. (1986). Second language proficiency and acculturation: An investigation of the effects of language status and individual characteristics. Journal of language and socialpsychology, 5, 271-290.
Clément, R., Baker, S. C., &MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norm, and validity. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22(2), 190-209.
Donovan, L. A., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2004). Age and sex differences in willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, and self- perceived competence. Communication Research Reports, 21(4), 420-427.
Dörnyei, Z. (1995). On the teachability of communication strategies. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), 55-85. doi:10.2307/3587805
Dörnyei, Z. (1997). Psychological processes in cooperative language learning: Group dynamics and motivation. Modern Language Journal,81(4), 482- 493.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z., & Scott, M. L. (1997). Communication strategies in a second language: Definitions and taxonomies. Language Learning, 47(1), 173-209.
Dörnyei, Z., &Thurrell, S. (1991). Strategic competence and how to teach it. ELTJournal, 45(1), 16-23.
Dörnyei, Z., &Thurrell, S. (1994). Teaching conversational skills intensively: Course content and rationale. ELT Journal, 48(1), 40-49.
Ellis, N. C. (2005). Constructions, chunking, and connectionism: The emergence of second language structure. In C. Doughty & M. Long (Eds.),The handbook of second language acquisition. Blackwell Reference Online.
Ellis, R. (1984). Communication strategies and the evaluation of communicative performance. ELT Journal, 38(1), 39-44.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ernst, G. (1994). Talking circle: Conversation and negotiation in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 28(2), 62-91. doi:10.2307/3587435
Foley, M., & Hall, D. (2002). Total English (elementary). London: Longman.
Foster, P. (1998). A classroom perspective on negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics 19(1), 1-23. doi:10.1093/applin/19.1.1
Foster, P., & Ohta, A.S. (2005). Negotiation for meaning and peer assistance in second language classrooms. Applied Linguistics, 26(3), 402-430. doi:10.1093/applin/ami014
Faucette, P. (2001). A pedagogical perspective on communication strategies: Benefits of training and an analysis of English language teaching materials. Second Language Studies 19(2), 1-40.
Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 19(1), 24-44.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Anderson, M. (2011). Techniques and principles in language teaching (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lee, W., & Ng, S. (2010). Reducing student reticence through teacher interaction strategy. ELT Journal, 64(3), 302-313. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccp080
Littlemore, J. (2001). An empirical study of the relationship between cognitive style and the use of communication strategy. Applied Linguistics 22 (2), 241-265.
Littlemore, J. (2003). The communicative effectiveness of different types of communication Strategy. System 31, 331-347. doi:10.1016/S0346-251X(03)00046-0
Long, M. H. (1983). Native speaker/non-native speaker conversation and the negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics,4, 126-141.
MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11(2), 135-142.
MacIntyre, P. D. (2007a). Willingness to communicate in the second language: Understanding the decision to speak as a volitional process. The Modern Language Journal, 91, 564-576. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2007.00623.x
MacIntyre, P. D. (2007b). Willingness to communicate in a second language: Individual decision making in a social context. Retrieved from www.uoc.edu/portal/.../Barcelona_paper_for_UOC_Conference.
MacIntyre, P. D., Babin, P. A., & Clément, R. (1999). Willingness to communicate: Antecedents and consequences. Communication Quarterly, 47(2), 215-229.
MacIntyre, P.D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Conrad, S. (2001).Willingness to communicate, social support, and language learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23, 369-388.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2002). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning Journal, 52(3), 537-564.
MacIntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clément , R., & Donovan, L. A. (2003). Talking in order to learn: Willingness to communicate and intensive language programs. Canadian Modern Language Review, 59(4), 589-607. doi:10.3138/cmlr.59.4.589
MacIntyre, P. D., &Charos, C. (1996). Personality, attitudes, and affect as predictors of second language communication. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 15, 3-26.
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal,82, 545-562.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Doucette, J. (2010). Willingness to communicate and action control. System, 38, 161-171.
MacIntyre, P. D., &Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic system approach to willingness to communicate: Developing an idiodynamic method to capture rapidly changing affect. Applied Linguistics, 32(2), 149-171. doi:10.1093/applin/amq037
Maleki, A. (2007). Teachability of communication strategies: An Iranian experience. System, 35(4), 583-594. doi:10.1016/j.system.2007.04.001
Maleki, A. (2010). Techniques to teach communication strategies. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 1(5), 640-646. doi:10.4304/jltr.1.5.640-646
McCroskey, J. C. (1997). Willingness to communicate, communication apprehension, and self-perceivedcommunication competence: Conceptualizations and perspectives. In J. A. Daly, J.C. McCroskey, J. Ayres, T. Hopf, & D. M. Ayres (Eds.), Avoiding communication: Shyness, reticence, and communication apprehension (pp. 75-108). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
McCroskey, J. C., & Richmond, V. P. (1990). Willingness to communicate: Differing cultural perspectives. The Southern Communication Journal, 56(1),72-77.
Millrood, R. (2001). Unsuccessful learners: In search of a neglected cornerstone. ELT Journal, 55(4), 405-407. doi:10.1093/elt/55.4.405
Nakatani, Y. (2010). Identifying strategies that facilitate EFL learners’ oral communication: A classroom study using multiple data collection procedures. The Modern Language Journal, 94(1), 116-136. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2009.00987.x
Oxford, R. L. (2001). Language learning strategies. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), Teaching English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Peng, J. E. (2007). Willingness to communicate in L2 in the EFL classroom: Rich descriptions from Chinese university students. Review of Applied Linguistics in China, 3, 30-59.
Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T.S. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Savignon, S. J. (2002). Communicative language teaching: Linguistic theory and classroom practice. In S. J. Savignon (Ed.), Interpreting communicative language teaching (pp. 1-27). New Haven: Yale University Press.
Savignon, S. J. (2005). Communicative language teaching: Strategies and goals. In E. Hinkel (Ed.),Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 635-651). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Shin, D., & Nation, P. (2008). Beyond single words: The most frequent collocations in spoken English. ELT Journal, 62(4), 339-348. doi:10.1093/elt/ccm091
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sunderland, J. (1998). Girls being quiet: A problem for foreign language classrooms? Language Teaching Research, 2(1), 48-82.
Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talk and repair in interlanguage. TESOL Quarterly,30(2), 417-431.
Tarone, E. (1981). Some thoughts on the notion of communication strategy. TESOL Quarterly, 15(3), 285-295.
Thornbury, S. (2005). How to teach speaking. Essex: Pearson Education.
Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT. Oxford: Macmilan Education.
Van den Branden, K. (1997). Effects of negotiation on language learners’ output. Language Learning Journal, 47(4), 589-636.
Wray, A. (2000). Formulaic sequences in second language teaching: Principle and practice. Applied Linguistics, 21(4), 463-489. doi:10.1093/applin/21.4.463
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. Modern Language Journal, 86, 54-66.
Yule, G., & Tarone, E. (1997). Investigating communication strategies in L2 reference: Pros and cons. In G. Kasper & E. Kellerman (Eds.), Communication strategies: Psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 17-30). London: Longman.
Yung, H. Y., &McCroskey, J. C. (2004). Communication apprehension in a first language and self-perceived competence as predictors of communication apprehension in a second language: A study of speakers of English as a second language. Communication Quarterly, 50(2), 170-181.
Zhang, X., & Head, K. (2009). Dealing with learner reticence in the speaking class. ELT Journal, 64(1), 1-9. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccp018
License
1.1 The Author hereby warrants that he/she is the owner of all the copyright and other intellectual property rights in the Work and that, within the scope of the present Agreement, the paper does not infringe the legal rights of another person. The owner of the copyright work also warrants that he/she is the sole and original creator thereof and that is not bound by any legal constraints in regard to the use or sale of the work.
1.2. The Publisher warrants that is the owner of the PRESSto platform for open access journals, hereinafter referred to as the PRESSto Platform.
2. The Author grants the Publisher non-exclusive and free of charge license to unlimited use worldwide over an unspecified period of time in the following areas of exploitation:
2.1. production of multiple copies of the Work produced according to the specific application of a given technology, including printing, reproduction of graphics through mechanical or electrical means (reprography) and digital technology;
2.2. marketing authorisation, loan or lease of the original or copies thereof;
2.3. public performance, public performance in the broadcast, video screening, media enhancements as well as broadcasting and rebroadcasting, made available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them;
2.4. inclusion of the Work into a collective work (i.e. with a number of contributions);
2.5. inclusion of the Work in the electronic version to be offered on an electronic platform, or any other conceivable introduction of the Work in its electronic version to the Internet;
2.6. dissemination of electronic versions of the Work in its electronic version online, in a collective work or independently;
2.7. making the Work in the electronic version available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, in particular by making it accessible via the Internet, Intranet, Extranet;
2.8. making the Work available according to appropriate license pattern Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) as well as another language version of this license or any later version published by Creative Commons.
3. The Author grants the Publisher permission to reproduce a single copy (print or download) and royalty-free use and disposal of rights to compilations of the Work and these compilations.
4. The Author grants the Publisher permission to send metadata files related to the Work, including to commercial and non-commercial journal-indexing databases.
5. The Author represents that, on the basis of the license granted in the present Agreement, the Publisher is entitled and obliged to:
5.1. allow third parties to obtain further licenses (sublicenses) to the Work and to other materials, including derivatives thereof or compilations made, based on or including the Work, whereas the provisions of such sub-licenses will be the same as with the Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) Creative Commons sub-license or another language version of this license, or any later version of this license published by Creative Commons;
5.2. make the Work available to the public in such a way that members of the public may access the Work from a place and at a time individually chosen by them, without any technological constraints;
5.3. appropriately inform members of the public to whom the Work is to be made available about sublicenses in such a way as to ensure that all parties are properly informed (appropriate informing messages).
6. Because of the royalty-free provision of services of the Author (resulting from the scope of obligations stipulated in the present Agreement), the Author shall not be entitled to any author’s fee due and payable on the part of the Publisher (no fee or royalty is payable by the Publisher to the Author).
7.1. In the case of third party claims or actions for indemnity against the Publisher owing to any infractions related to any form of infringement of intellectual property rights protection, including copyright infringements, the Author is obliged to take all possible measures necessary to protect against these claims and, when as a result of legal action, the Publisher, or any third party licensed by the Publisher to use the Work, will have to abandon using the Work in its entirety or in part or, following a court ruling in a legal challenge, to pay damages to a third party, whatever the legal basis
7.2. The Author will immediately inform the Publisher about any damage claims related to intellectual property infringements, including the author’s proprietary rights pertaining to a copyrighted work, filed against the Author. of liability, the Author is obliged to redress the damage resulting from claims made by third party, including costs and expenditures incurred in the process.
7.3. To all matters not settled herein provisions of the Polish Civil Code and the Polish Copyright and Related Rights Act shall apply.